Editing Recycling (section)

== Recycling industrial waste ==
[[File:Shredded tires.JPG|right|thumb|Mounds of shredded rubber tires ready for processing]]

Although many government programs concentrate on recycling at home, 64% of waste in the United Kingdom is generated by industry.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.cumbria.gov.uk/elibrary/Content/Internet/538/755/1929/421459230.pdf |title = UK statistics on waste – 2010 to 2012 |date = 25 September 2014 |access-date = 3 December 2017 |website = UK Government |page = 2 and 6 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171203224604/https://www.cumbria.gov.uk/elibrary/Content/Internet/538/755/1929/421459230.pdf |archive-date = 3 December 2017 |url-status = dead }}</ref> The focus of many recycling programs in industry is their cost-effectiveness. The ubiquitous nature of [[cardboard]] packaging makes cardboard a common waste product recycled by companies that deal heavily in packaged goods, such as [[retail store]]s, [[warehouse]]s, and goods distributors. Other industries deal in niche and specialized products, depending on the waste materials they handle.

Glass, lumber, [[wood pulp]] and paper manufacturers all deal directly in commonly recycled materials; however, independent tire dealers may collect and recycle [[rubber tires]] for a profit.

The waste produced from burning [[coal]] in a [[Coal-fired power station]] is often called [[fuel ash]] or [[fly ash]] in the [[United States]]. It is a very useful material and used in [[concrete]] construction. It exhibits [[Pozzolanic activity]].<ref>Polymer modified cements and repair mortars. Daniels LJ, PhD thesis Lancaster University 1992</ref>

Levels of metals recycling are generally low. In 2010, the [[International Resource Panel]], hosted by the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP), published reports on metal stocks<ref name="IRP">{{cite web |url = http://www.unep.org/resourcepanel/Publications/tabid/54044/Default.aspx |title = Publications – International Resource Panel |website = unep.org |access-date = 7 July 2016 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20121111132915/http://www.unep.org/resourcepanel/Publications/tabid/54044/Default.aspx |archive-date = 11 November 2012 }}</ref> and their recycling rates.<ref name="IRP" /> It reported that the increase in the use of metals during the 20th and into the 21st century has led to a substantial shift in metal stocks from below-ground to use in above-ground applications within society. For example, in the US, in-use copper grew from 73 to 238&nbsp;kg per capita between 1932–1999.

The report's authors observed that, as metals are inherently recyclable, metal stocks in society can serve as huge above-ground mines (the term "urban mining" has thus been coined<ref>{{cite web |title = How Urban Mining Works |url = http://urbanmining.org/2010/07/07/how-urban-mining-works-2/ |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100711042131/http://urbanmining.org/2010/07/07/how-urban-mining-works-2/ |url-status = dead |archive-date = 11 July 2010 |access-date = 9 August 2013 }}</ref>). However, they found that the recycling rates of many metals are low. They warned that the recycling rates of some [[Rare-earth element|rare metals]] used in applications such as mobile phones, battery packs for hybrid cars and fuel cells, are so low that unless future end-of-life recycling rates are dramatically increased, these critical metals will become unavailable for use in modern technology.

The military recycles some metals. The [[U.S. Navy]]'s Ship Disposal Program uses [[ship breaking]] to reclaim the steel of old vessels. Ships may also be sunk to create [[artificial reef]]s. [[Uranium]] is a dense metal that has qualities superior to lead and [[titanium]] for many military and industrial uses. Uranium left over from processing it into [[nuclear weapon]]s and fuel for [[nuclear reactor]]s is called [[depleted uranium]], and is used by all branches of the U.S. military for the development of such things as armor-piercing shells and shielding.

The construction industry may recycle concrete and old [[Asphalt concrete|road surface pavement]], selling these materials for profit.

Some rapidly growing industries, particularly the [[renewable energy industry|renewable energy]] and [[solar photovoltaic|solar photovoltaic technology]] industries, are proactively creating recycling policies even before their waste streams have considerable volume, anticipating future demand.<ref>{{cite journal | first1=N. C. | last1=McDonald | first2=J. M. | last2=Pearce | title=Producer Responsibility and Recycling Solar Photovoltaic Modules | journal=Energy Policy | volume=38 | issue=11 | pages=7041–7047 | year=2010 | doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2010.07.023 | bibcode=2010EnPol..38.7041M | url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02120502/file/Producer_Responsibility_and_Recycling_So.pdf | hdl=1974/6122 | access-date=18 August 2019 | archive-date=1 October 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001181251/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02120502/file/Producer_Responsibility_and_Recycling_So.pdf | url-status=live }}</ref>

Recycling of plastics is more difficult, as most programs are not able to reach the necessary level of quality. Recycling of [[PVC]] often results in [[downcycling]] of the material, which means only products of lower quality standard can be made with the recycled material.{{Further|Computer recycling}}
{{Further|Battery recycling}}
{{Further|Solar panel#Recycling}}
{{Further|Wind turbine#Demolition and recycling}}
[[File:RetiredCPUs.jpg|thumb|Computer processors retrieved from waste stream]]

[[Electronic waste|E-waste]] is a growing problem, accounting for 20–50 million metric tons of global waste per year according to the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]]. It is also the fastest growing waste stream in the EU.<ref name="Kinver" /> Many recyclers do not recycle e-waste responsibly. After the cargo barge [[Khian Sea waste disposal incident|Khian Sea]] dumped 14,000 metric tons of toxic ash in [[Haiti]], the [[Basel Convention]] was formed to stem the flow of hazardous substances into poorer countries. They created the [[e-Stewards|e-Stewards certification]] to ensure that recyclers are held to the highest standards for environmental responsibility and to help consumers identify responsible recyclers. It operates alongside other prominent legislation, such as the [[Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive]] of the EU and the [[United States]] National Computer Recycling Act, to prevent poisonous chemicals from entering waterways and the atmosphere.

In the recycling process, television sets, monitors, cell phones, and computers are typically tested for reuse and repaired. If broken, they may be disassembled for parts still having high value if labor is cheap enough. Other e-waste is shredded to pieces roughly {{convert|10|cm|in}} in size and manually checked to separate toxic batteries and [[capacitor]]s, which contain poisonous metals. The remaining pieces are further shredded to {{convert|10|mm|in}} particles and passed under a magnet to remove ferrous metals. An [[eddy current]] ejects non-ferrous metals, which are sorted by density either by a centrifuge or vibrating plates. Precious metals can be dissolved in acid, sorted, and smelted into ingots. The remaining glass and plastic fractions are separated by density and sold to re-processors. Television sets and monitors must be manually disassembled to remove lead from [[Cathode-ray tube|CRTs]] and the mercury backlight from [[Liquid-crystal display|LCDs]].<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.calrecycle.ca.gov/homehazwaste/Events/AnnualConf/2006/April27/Session4/CompRecTH.pdf |first = Thomas Q. |last = Hogye |title = The Anatomy of a Computer Recycling Process |publisher = California Department of Resources Recycling and Recovery |access-date = 13 October 2014 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150923200011/http://www.calrecycle.ca.gov/homehazwaste/Events/AnnualConf/2006/April27/Session4/CompRecTH.pdf |archive-date = 23 September 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title = Sweeep Kuusakoski – Resources – BBC Documentary |url = http://www.sweeepkuusakoski.co.uk/resources/bbc.php |website = www.sweeepkuusakoski.co.uk |access-date = 31 July 2015 |archive-date = 30 November 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201130042254/http://www.sweeepkuusakoski.co.uk/resources/bbc.php |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title = Sweeep Kuusakoski – Glass Recycling – BBC filming of CRT furnace |url = http://www.sweeepkuusakoski.co.uk/glassrecycling/furness.php |website = www.sweeepkuusakoski.co.uk |access-date = 31 July 2015 |archive-date = 30 November 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201130035706/http://www.sweeepkuusakoski.co.uk/glassrecycling/furness.php |url-status = live }}</ref>

[[Vehicle recycling|Vehicles]], solar panels and wind turbines can also be recycled. They often contain [[Rare-earth element#Recycling and reusing REEs|rare-earth elements]] (REE) and/or [[List of elements facing shortage#European strategy|other critical raw materials]]. For [[Environmental aspects of the electric car#Raw material availability and supply security|electric car production]], large amounts of REE's are typically required.<ref name="ReferenceA">The dark side of green energies documentary</ref>

Whereas many critical raw elements and REE's can be recovered, environmental engineer [https://www.institutmomentum.org/language/en/author/philippebihouix/ Phillipe Bihouix] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210906071831/https://www.institutmomentum.org/language/en/author/philippebihouix/ |date=6 September 2021 }} reports that recycling of [[indium]], [[gallium]], [[germanium]], [[selenium]], and [[tantalum]] is still very difficult and their recycling rates are very low.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

=== Plastic recycling ===
{{Main|Plastic recycling}}

[[File:Spoon recycling 3d printing.jpg|thumb|upright|A container for recycling used plastic spoons into material for [[3D printing]]]]

Plastic recycling is the process of recovering scrap or waste plastic and reprocessing the material into useful products, sometimes completely different in form from their original state. For instance, this could mean melting down soft drink bottles and then casting them as plastic chairs and tables.<ref>{{cite web |last = Layton |first = Julia |url = http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/green-tech/sustainable/eco-plastic1.htm |title = "Eco"-plastic: recycled plastic |publisher = Science.howstuffworks.com |date = 22 April 2009 |access-date = 9 June 2014 |archive-date = 27 May 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200527085737/https://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/green-tech/sustainable/eco-plastic1.htm |url-status = live }}</ref> For some types of plastic, the same piece of plastic can only be recycled about 2–3 times before its quality decreases to the point where it can no longer be used.<ref name="NG" />

==== Physical recycling ====
Some plastics are remelted to form new plastic objects; for example, PET water bottles can be converted into polyester destined for clothing. A disadvantage of this type of recycling is that the molecular weight of the polymer can change further and the levels of unwanted substances in the plastic can increase with each remelt.<ref name="SilvaGouveia2019">{{cite book | author1 = Francisco José Gomes da Silva | author2 = Ronny Miguel Gouveia | date = 18 July 2019 | title = Cleaner Production: Toward a Better Future | publisher = Springer | page = 180 | isbn = 978-3-03-023165-1 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ouijDwAAQBAJ | access-date = 30 August 2022 | archive-date = 20 February 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230220183216/https://books.google.com/books?id=ouijDwAAQBAJ | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="LongScheirs2005">{{cite book | author1 = Timothy E. Long | author2 = John Scheirs | date = 1 September 2005 | title = Modern Polyesters: Chemistry and Technology of Polyesters and Copolyesters | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | page = 459 | isbn = 978-0-470-09067-1 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgxgZ5vfxTkC | access-date = 30 August 2022 | archive-date = 20 February 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230220183215/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgxgZ5vfxTkC | url-status = live }}</ref>

A commercial-built recycling facility was sent to the [[International Space Station]] in late 2019. The facility takes in [[plastic waste]] and unneeded plastic parts and physically converts them into spools of feedstock for the space station [[additive manufacturing]] facility used for in-space [[3D printing]].<ref name=sn20191021>{{cite news |last=Werner |first=Debra |url=https://spacenews.com/made-in-space-to-launch-commercial-recycler-to-space-station/ |title=Made in Space to launch commercial recycler to space station |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=21 October 2019 |access-date=22 October 2019 |archive-date=20 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230220183223/https://spacenews.com/made-in-space-to-launch-commercial-recycler-to-space-station/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Chemical recycling ====
For some polymers, it is possible to convert them back into monomers, for example, PET can be treated with an alcohol and a catalyst to form a dialkyl terephthalate. The terephthalate diester can be used with ethylene glycol to form a new polyester polymer, thus making it possible to use the pure polymer again. In 2019, [[Eastman Chemical Company]] announced initiatives of [[Transesterification|methanolysis]] and [[syngas]] designed to handle a greater variety of used material.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.greenbiz.com/article/eastman-advances-two-chemical-recycling-options|title=Eastman advances two chemical recycling options|last=Siegel|first=R. P.|date=7 August 2019|website=GreenBiz|language=en|access-date=29 August 2019|archive-date=29 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829070614/https://www.greenbiz.com/article/eastman-advances-two-chemical-recycling-options|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Waste plastic pyrolysis to fuel oil ====
Another process involves the conversion of assorted polymers into petroleum by a much less precise thermal [[depolymerization]] process. Such a process would be able to accept almost any polymer or mix of polymers, including [[thermoset]] materials such as vulcanized rubber tires and the [[biopolymer]]s in feathers and other agricultural waste. Like natural petroleum, the chemicals produced can be used as fuels or as feedstock. A RESEM Technology<ref>{{cite web |title = RESEM A Leading Pyrolysis Plant Manufacturer |url = http://www.pyrolysisoil.net |publisher = RESEM Pyrolysis Plant |access-date = 20 August 2012 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130218171416/http://www.pyrolysisoil.net/ |archive-date = 18 February 2013 |url-status = dead }}</ref> plant of this type in [[Carthage, Missouri]], US, uses turkey waste as input material. Gasification is a similar process but is not technically recycling since polymers are not likely to become the result.
Plastic Pyrolysis can convert petroleum based waste streams such as plastics into quality fuels, carbons. Given below is the list of suitable plastic raw materials for [[pyrolysis]]:
* Mixed plastic ([[HDPE]], [[LDPE]], [[polyethylene|PE]], [[polypropylene|PP]], [[Nylon]], [[Teflon]], [[polystyrene|PS]], [[ABS plastic|ABS]], [[Fibre-reinforced plastic|FRP]], [[Polyethylene terephthalate|PET]] etc.)
* Mixed waste plastic from waste paper mill
* Multi-layered plastic