Editing Polyvinyl chloride (section)

==Health and safety==
===Plasticizers===
Phthalates, which are incorporated into plastics as plasticizers, comprise approximately 70% of the US plasticizer market; phthalates are by design not covalently bound to the polymer matrix, which makes them highly susceptible to leaching. Phthalates are contained in plastics at high percentages. For example, they can contribute up to 40% by weight to intravenous medical bags and up to 80% by weight in medical tubing.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev.publhealth.012809.103714| doi-access=free|pmid=20070188|title=Plastics and Health Risks|journal=Annual Review of Public Health|volume=31|pages=179–194|year=2010|last1=Halden|first1=Rolf U.| issue=1}}</ref> Vinyl products are pervasive—including toys,<ref>[http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2005/l_344/l_34420051227en00400043.pdf Directive 2005/84/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council 14 December 2005] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130504104216/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2005/l_344/l_34420051227en00400043.pdf |date=4 May 2013 }}. Official Journal of the European Union. 27 December 2005</ref> car interiors, shower curtains, and flooring—and initially release chemical gases into the air. Some studies indicate that this [[outgassing]] of additives may contribute to health complications, and have resulted in a call for banning the use of DEHP on shower curtains, among other uses.<ref>[http://www.canada.com/cityguides/winnipeg/info/story.html?id=dfe49cb3-b104-4d4a-a449-14e4faf17e2b Vinyl shower curtains a 'volatile' hazard, study says] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100904012142/http://www.canada.com/cityguides/winnipeg/info/story.html?id=dfe49cb3-b104-4d4a-a449-14e4faf17e2b |date=4 September 2010 }}. Canada.com (12 June 2008). Retrieved on 6 October 2011.</ref>

In 2004 a joint Swedish-Danish research team found a statistical association between allergies in children and indoor air levels of DEHP and BBzP ([[butyl benzyl phthalate]]), which is used in vinyl flooring.<ref>{{cite journal| doi = 10.1289/ehp.7187| author = Bornehag, Carl-Gustaf| year = 2004| title = The Association between Asthma and Allergic Symptoms in Children and Phthalates in House Dust: A Nested Case–Control Study| journal = Environmental Health Perspectives| volume = 112| issue = 14| pages = 1393–1397| pmid = 15471731| pmc = 1247566| last2 = Sundell| first2 = Jan| last3 = Weschler| first3 = Charles J.| last4 = Sigsgaard| first4 = Torben| last5 = Lundgren| first5 = Björn| last6 = Hasselgren| first6 = Mikael| last7 = Hägerhed-Engman| first7 = Linda| bibcode = 2004EnvHP.112.1393B|display-authors=etal}}</ref> In December 2006, the [[European Chemicals Bureau]] of the European Commission released a final draft risk assessment of BBzP which found "no concern" for consumer exposure including exposure to children.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080602175817/http://blog.phthalates.org/archives/2007/01/more_good_news.html Phthalate Information Center Blog: More good news from Europe]. phthalates.org (3 January 2007)</ref>

===Lead===
[[Lead]] compounds had previously been widely added to PVC to improve workability and stability but have been shown to leach into drinking water from PVC pipes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.plasticsnews.com/article/20130906/NEWS/130909958/chinas-pvc-pipe-makers-under-pressure-to-give-up-lead-stabilizers|title=China's PVC pipe makers under pressure to give up lead stabilizers|date=6 September 2013}}</ref>

In Europe the use of lead-based stabilizers has been discontinued. The [[VinylPlus]] voluntary commitment which began in 2000, saw European Stabiliser Producers Association (ESPA) members complete the replacement of Pb-based stabilisers in 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.stabilisers.eu/lead-replacement/|title=Lead replacement|website=European Stabiliser Producers Association|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181205030017/https://www.stabilisers.eu/lead-replacement/|archive-date=5 December 2018|url-status=live|access-date=5 December 2018}}</ref><ref name="vinylplus.eu">{{cite web|url=https://www.vinylplus.eu/uploads/downloads/VinylPlus_Progress_Report_2016.pdf|title=VinylPlus Progress Report 2016|date=30 April 2016|publisher=[[VinylPlus]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220164127/https://www.vinylplus.eu/uploads/downloads/VinylPlus_Progress_Report_2016.pdf|archive-date=20 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Vinyl chloride monomer===
{{main|Vinyl chloride}}
In the early 1970s, the carcinogenicity of vinyl chloride (usually called vinyl chloride monomer or VCM) was linked to cancers in workers in the polyvinyl chloride industry. Specifically workers in polymerization section of a [[Goodrich Corporation|B.F. Goodrich]] plant near [[Louisville, Kentucky]], were diagnosed with liver [[angiosarcoma]] also known as [[hemangiosarcoma]], a rare disease.<ref>{{cite journal
| date=March 1974| title = Angiosarcoma of liver in the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride| journal = Journal of Occupational Medicine| volume = 16| issue = 3| pages = 150–1| pmid=4856325| last1 = Creech| first1 = J. L. Jr.| last2 = Johnson| first2 = M. N.}}</ref> Since that time, studies of PVC workers in Australia, Italy, Germany, and the UK have all associated certain types of occupational cancers with exposure to vinyl chloride, and it has become accepted that VCM is a carcinogen.<ref name=ullmannPVC/>

===Combustion===
PVC produces [[Hydrogen chloride|HCl]] and carbon dioxide upon combustion.

===Dioxins===
{{Main|Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins}}

Studies of household waste burning indicate consistent increases in dioxin generation with increasing PVC concentrations.<ref name=costner2005>Costner, Pat (2005) [http://www.pops.int/documents/meetings/cop_2/followup/toolkit/submissions/IPEN%20Comments/Estimating%20Dioxin%20Releases%20English.pdf "Estimating Releases and Prioritizing Sources in the Context of the Stockholm Convention"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927024749/http://www.pops.int/documents/meetings/cop_2/followup/toolkit/submissions/IPEN%20Comments/Estimating%20Dioxin%20Releases%20English.pdf |date=27 September 2007 }}, International POPs Elimination Network, Mexico.</ref> According to the U.S. EPA dioxin inventory, [[landfill fire]]s are likely to represent an even larger source of dioxin to the environment. A survey of international studies consistently identifies high dioxin concentrations in areas affected by open waste burning and a study that looked at the homologue pattern found the sample with the highest dioxin concentration was "typical for the pyrolysis of PVC". Other EU studies indicate that PVC likely "accounts for the overwhelming majority of chlorine that is available for dioxin formation during landfill fires."<ref name=costner2005/>

The next largest sources of dioxin in the U.S. EPA inventory are medical and municipal waste incinerators.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/0004-6981(87)90267-8 |author=Beychok, M.R.|title=A data base of dioxin and furan emissions from municipal refuse incinerators|journal=Atmospheric Environment|year=1987|volume =21|issue =1|pages =29–36|bibcode=1987AtmEn..21...29B}}</ref> Various studies have been conducted that reach contradictory results. For instance a study of commercial-scale incinerators showed no relationship between the PVC content of the waste and dioxin emissions.<ref>National Renewable Energy Laboratory, [http://www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/old/5518.pdf Polyvinyl Chloride Plastics in Municipal Solid Waste Combustion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130215043431/http://www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/old/5518.pdf |date=15 February 2013 }} NREL/TP-430- 5518, Golden CO, April 1993</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1 = Rigo|first1 = H. G.|last2 = Chandler|first2 = A. J.|last3 = Lanier|first3 = W.S.|title = The Relationship between Chlorine in Waste Streams and Dioxin Emissions from Waste Combustor Stacks|journal = American Society of Mechanical Engineers Report CRTD|volume = 36|year = 1995|url = http://www.pvcinfo.be/bestanden/ASME%20abstract1.pdf|isbn = 978-0-7918-1222-8|publisher = American Society of Mechanical Engineers|location = New York, NY|access-date = 31 October 2009|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160407153408/http://www.pvcinfo.be/bestanden/ASME%20abstract1.pdf|archive-date = 7 April 2016|url-status = dead}}</ref> Other studies have shown a clear correlation between dioxin formation and chloride content and indicate that PVC is a significant contributor to the formation of both dioxin and PCB in incinerators.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Katami, Takeo |year=2002|title=Formation of PCDDs, PCDFs, and Coplanar PCBs from Polyvinyl Chloride during Combustion in an Incinerator|journal= Environ. Sci. Technol.|volume= 36|pages= 1320–1324|doi=10.1021/es0109904|pmid=11944687|issue=6|last2=Yasuhara|first2=Akio|last3=Okuda|first3=Toshikazu|last4=Shibamoto|first4=Takayuki|display-authors=etal|bibcode=2002EnST...36.1320K}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Wagner, J.  |author2=Green, A. |year=1993|title=Correlation of chlorinated organic compound emissions from incineration with chlorinated organic input|journal= Chemosphere |volume=26 |issue=11|pages=2039–2054|doi=10.1016/0045-6535(93)90030-9|bibcode=1993Chmsp..26.2039W}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Thornton, Joe|year=2002|title=Environmental Impacts of polyvinyl Chloride Building Materials|publisher=[[Healthy Building Network]]|place=Washington, DC|url=http://www.healthybuilding.net/pvc/Thornton_Enviro_Impacts_of_PVC.pdf|isbn=978-0-9724632-0-1|access-date=6 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130920032531/http://healthybuilding.net/pvc/Thornton_Enviro_Impacts_of_PVC.pdf|archive-date=20 September 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In February 2007, the Technical and Scientific Advisory Committee of the [[US Green Building Council]] (USGBC) released its report on a PVC avoidance related materials credit for the [[LEED]] Green Building Rating system. The report concludes that "no single material shows up as the best across all the human health and environmental impact categories, nor as the worst" but that the "risk of dioxin emissions puts PVC consistently among the worst materials for human health impacts."<ref>[https://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=2372 The USGBC document] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070713170713/https://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=2372 |date=13 July 2007 }}; [http://www.pharosproject.net/wiki/index.php?title=USGBC_TSAC_PVC An analysis by the Healthy Building NEtwork] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080602205050/http://www.pharosproject.net/wiki/index.php?title=USGBC_TSAC_PVC |date=2 June 2008 }}</ref>

In Europe the overwhelming importance of combustion conditions on dioxin formation has been established by numerous researchers. The single most important factor in forming dioxin-like compounds is the temperature of the combustion gases. Oxygen concentration also plays a major role on dioxin formation, but not the chlorine content.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wikstrom|first=Evalena|author2=G. Lofvenius |author3=C. Rappe |author4=S. Marklund |title=Influence of Level and Form of Chlorine on the Formation of Chlorinated Dioxins, Dibenzofurans, and Benzenes during Combustion of an Artificial Fuel in a Laboratory Reactor|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|year=1996|volume=30|issue=5|pages=1637–1644|doi=10.1021/es9506364|bibcode=1996EnST...30.1637W}}</ref>

Several studies have also shown that removing PVC from waste would not significantly reduce the quantity of dioxins emitted. The EU Commission published in July 2000 a Green Paper on the Environmental Issues of PVC"<ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/pvc/pdf/en.pdf Environmental issues of PVC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512144023/http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/pvc/pdf/en.pdf |date=12 May 2012 }}. European Commission. Brussels, 26 July 2000</ref>

A study commissioned by the European Commission on "Life Cycle Assessment of PVC and of principal competing materials" states that "Recent studies show that the presence of PVC has no significant effect on the amount of dioxins released through incineration of [[plastic pollution|plastic waste]]."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140327075103/http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/chemicals/files/sustdev/pvc-final_report_lca_en.pdf Life Cycle Assessment of PVC and of principal competing materials Commissioned by the European Commission]. European Commission (July 2004), p. 96</ref>

====Industry initiatives====
In Europe, developments in PVC waste management have been monitored by Vinyl 2010,<ref>[http://www.vinyl2010.org Home – Vinyl 2010 The European PVC industry commitment to Sustainability] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725200810/http://www.vinyl2010.org/ |date=25 July 2013 }}. Vinyl2010.org (22 June 2011). Retrieved on 6 October 2011.</ref> established in 2000. Vinyl 2010's objective was to recycle 200,000 tonnes of post-consumer PVC waste per year in Europe by the end of 2010, excluding waste streams already subject to other or more specific legislation (such as the European Directives on [[End of Life Vehicles Directive|End-of-Life Vehicles]], Packaging and Waste Electric and Electronic Equipment).{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}

Since June 2011, it is followed by VinylPlus, a new set of targets for sustainable development.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20141120080145/http://www.vinylplus.eu/en_GB/about-vinylplus/our-voluntary-commitment Our Voluntary Commitment]. vinylplus.eu</ref> Its main target is to recycle 800,000 tonnes per year of PVC by 2020 including 100,000 tonnes of "difficult to recycle" waste. One facilitator for collection and recycling of PVC waste is Recovinyl.<ref>[http://www.recovinyl.com Incentives to collect and recycle] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119005124/https://www.recovinyl.com/ |date=19 January 2022 }}. Recovinyl.com. Retrieved on 28 January 2016.</ref> The reported and audited mechanically recycled PVC tonnage in 2016 was 568,695 tonnes which in 2018 had increased to 739,525 tonnes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://vinylplus.eu/uploads/images/ProgressReport2019/VinylPlus%20Progress%20Report%202019_sp.pdf|title=VinylPlus Progress Report 2019|access-date=22 September 2019|archive-date=14 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200214043955/https://vinylplus.eu/uploads/images/ProgressReport2019/VinylPlus%20Progress%20Report%202019_sp.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

One approach to address the problem of waste PVC is also through the process called [[Vinyloop]]. It is a mechanical recycling process using a solvent to separate PVC from other materials. This solvent turns in a closed loop process in which the solvent is recycled. Recycled PVC is used in place of virgin PVC in various applications: coatings for swimming pools, shoe soles, hoses, diaphragms tunnel, coated fabrics, PVC sheets.<ref>[http://www.solvayplastics.com/sites/solvayplastics/EN/vinyls/vinyloop/Pages/VinyloopHome.aspx Solvay, asking more from chemistry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120101172817/http://www.solvayplastics.com/sites/solvayplastics/EN/vinyls/vinyloop/Pages/VinyloopHome.aspx |date=1 January 2012 }}. Solvayplastics.com (15 July 2013). Retrieved on 28 January 2016.</ref> This recycled PVC's primary energy demand is 46 percent lower than conventional produced PVC. So the use of recycled material leads to a significant better [[ecological footprint]]. The [[global warming potential]] is 39 percent lower.<ref>[http://www.solvayplastics.com/sites/solvayplastics/SiteCollectionDocuments/VinyLoop/The%20VinyLoop%20Eco-Footprint%20Study.pdf Solvay, asking more from chemistry] {{Webarchive|url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516130930/http://www.solvayplastics.com/sites/solvayplastics/SiteCollectionDocuments/VinyLoop/The%20VinyLoop%20Eco-Footprint%20Study.pdf |date=16 May 2016 }}. Solvayplastics.com (15 July 2013). Retrieved on 28 January 2016.</ref>

====Restrictions====
In November 2005, one of the largest hospital networks in the US, [[Catholic Healthcare West]], signed a contract with [[B. Braun]] Melsungen for vinyl-free intravenous bags and tubing.<ref>{{cite journal |date = 21 November 2005 |title = CHW Switches to PVC/DEHP-Free Products to Improve Patient Safety and Protect the Environment |journal = Business Wire |url = http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20051121005624/en/CHW-Switches-PVCDEHP-Free-Products-Improve-Patient-Safety |access-date = 28 January 2016 |archive-date = 9 April 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160409063746/http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20051121005624/en/CHW-Switches-PVCDEHP-Free-Products-Improve-Patient-Safety |url-status = live }}</ref>

In January 2012, a major US West Coast healthcare provider, [[Kaiser Permanente]], announced that it will no longer buy intravenous (IV) medical equipment made with PVC and DEHP-type plasticizers.<ref>Smock, Doug (19 January 2012) [https://web.archive.org/web/20151110104103/http://www.plasticstoday.com/articles/kaiser-permanente-bans-pvc-tubing-and-bags0119201201 Kaiser Permanente bans PVC tubing and bags]. plasticstoday.com</ref>

In 1998, the [[U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission]] (CPSC) arrived at a voluntary agreement with manufacturers to remove phthalates from PVC rattles, teethers, baby bottle nipples and pacifiers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chej.org/pvcfactsheets/PVC_Policies_Around_The_World.html|title=PVC Policies Across the World|website=chej.org|access-date=25 August 2017|archive-date=10 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810185527/http://www.chej.org/pvcfactsheets/PVC_Policies_Around_The_World.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Vinyl gloves in medicine===
[[File:Vinyl Einmalhandschuhe.JPG|thumb|Vinyl gloves]]
Plasticized PVC is a common material for [[medical glove]]s. Due to vinyl gloves having less flexibility and elasticity, several guidelines recommend either [[Natural rubber|latex]] or [[Nitrile rubber|nitrile]] gloves for clinical care and procedures that require manual dexterity or that involve patient contact for more than a brief period. Vinyl gloves show poor resistance to many chemicals, including glutaraldehyde-based products and alcohols used in formulation of disinfectants for swabbing down work surfaces or in hand rubs. The additives in PVC are also known to cause skin reactions such as allergic contact dermatitis. These are for example the antioxidant [[bisphenol A]], the biocide [[benzisothiazolinone]], propylene glycol/adipate polyester and ethylhexylmaleate.<ref name=ansell>{{cite web|title=Vinyl Gloves: Causes For Concern|url=http://www.anselleurope.com/medical/pdf/Position%20Paper_EN.pdf|publisher=[[Ansell]] (glove manufacturer)|access-date=17 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150922064819/http://www.anselleurope.com/medical/pdf/Position%20Paper_EN.pdf|archive-date=22 September 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>