Editing Joseph Chamberlain (section)

==Zenith of power: 1900–03==
[[File:Harrington Mann - The Right Honourable Joseph Chamberlain (1836–1914), MP c1900.jpg|thumb|upright|left|275px|Portrait by [[Harrington Mann]], {{circa}}1900]]

===Khaki Election of 1900===
{{Main|1900 United Kingdom general election}}
In the 1900 election Salisbury, in mourning for his wife and ill himself, made no speeches and Balfour made few public appearances. In their stead Chamberlain dominated the Unionist campaign to the point that some referred to it as "Joe's election”.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} He ensured that the Boer War featured as the campaign's [[single issue]], arguing that a Liberal victory would result in defeat in South Africa and lending the election its ‘[[khaki election]]’ sobriquet, after the colour of the new uniforms worn by British troops.

The Unionists controversially tied their Liberal opponents direct to the enemy using the phrase "Every seat lost to the government is a seat sold to the Boers"; some posters portrayed Liberal MPs praising Kruger and helping him to haul down the [[Union Jack]]. Chamberlain himself made personal use of such tactics, declaring in a speech, "We have come practically to the end of the war... There is nothing going on now but a [[guerrilla]] business, which is encouraged by these men—I was going to say those traitors, but I will say instead these misguided individuals."{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} Some Liberals resorted to retaliatory tactics, with [[Lloyd George]] in particular accusing Chamberlain's son and brother of war profiteering. Though many Liberals rejected Lloyd George's claims and Chamberlain dismissed them as unworthy of reply, the charges troubled him more than he was prepared to make evident in public.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

Leveraging the cause of imperialism to devastating effect and splitting the Liberals over the war, the Unionists won a huge 219-seat majority in the House of Commons. Though the mandate was not as comprehensive as Chamberlain had hoped, it strengthened the government and his own standing within it, allowing him to pursue his vision for the Empire.

A twenty-six-year-old [[Winston Churchill]], already famous for his wartime correspondence for ''[[The Morning Post]]'' and escape from a prisoner-of-war camp, successfully stood as a Conservative candidate in [[Oldham (UK Parliament constituency)|Oldham]]. Chamberlain spoke on his behalf, and Churchill later recalled the experience:{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

<blockquote>I watched my honoured guest with close attention. He loved the roar of the multitude, and with [[Lord Randolph Churchill|my father]] could always say 'I have never feared the English democracy.' The blood mantled in his cheek, and his eye as it caught mine twinkled with pure enjoyment.</blockquote>

Churchill later wrote of the period, "Mr. Chamberlain was incomparably the most live, sparkling, insurgent, compulsive figure in British affairs ... 'Joe' was the one who made the weather. He was the man the masses knew."{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

===Third failed attempt at Anglo-German alliance: 1900–02===
The ailing Salisbury resigned as [[Foreign Secretary (United Kingdom)|Foreign Secretary]] at the conclusion of the 1900 election, under pressure from Balfour and [[Queen Victoria]].{{efn|The Queen was dying herself. Chamberlain was the last minister to see her alive, just days before [[Death and state funeral of Queen Victoria|her death on 22 January 1901]].{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}}} He was succeeded in that role by the relatively inexperienced Lord Lansdowne, but Chamberlain seized the initiative in British foreign affairs. His first goal was, yet again, to formulate an agreement with Germany.<ref>Avner Cohen, "Joseph Chamberlain, Lord Lansdowne and British Foreign Policy 1901–1903: From Collaboration to Confrontation," ''Australian Journal of Politics & History'' (1997) 43#2 pp 122–134</ref>

On 16 January 1901, Chamberlain and [[Spencer Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire]] made it known to Baron Hermann von Eckardstein that Britain still planned to join the [[Triple Alliance (1882)|Triple Alliance]]. The news was received with some satisfaction in Berlin, although von Bülow continued to exercise caution. The Kaiser urged a positive response, but von Bülow wished to delay negotiations until Britain was made vulnerable by the ongoing war in South Africa. On 18 March, Eckardstein asked Chamberlain to resume negotiations, but he was unwilling to commit himself following von Bülow's 1899 rebuke. Instead, Eckardstein negotiated directly with the Foreign Secretary, Landsdowne, and Chamberlain was sidelined. A five-year Anglo-German defensive alliance was presented, to be ratified by Parliament and the Reichstag. When Lansdowne prevaricated, von Hatzfeldt presented a demanding invitation for Britain to join the Triple Alliance, committed to the defence of [[Austria-Hungary]]. Salisbury decided decisively against entering as a junior partner.<ref>Adam Lajeunesse, "The Anglo-German Alliance Talks and the Failure of Amateur Diplomacy," ''Past Imperfect'' (2007), Vol. 13, pp 84–107</ref>

On 25 October 1901, as part of a defense of British Army tactics in South Africa, Chamberlain made a favorable comparison to the conduct of troops in the [[Franco-Prussian War]], a statement directed at Germany. Despite outrage in the German press and von Bülow's demand for an apology, Chamberlain was unrepentant. This public dispute finally ended Chamberlain's hopes of an Anglo-German alliance, but Chamberlain's popularity in Britain soared, with ''The Times'' commenting, "Mr. Chamberlain... is at this moment the most popular and trusted man in England."{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} Still seeking an end to "[[splendid isolation]]," Chamberlain sought to escalate negotiations with French Ambassador [[Paul Cambon]] (begun in March 1901 to settle colonial differences), though neither Lansdowne nor Cambon moved as quickly as Chamberlain would have liked. In February 1902, at a banquet at Marlborough House held by King [[Edward VII]], Chamberlain and Cambon resumed their negotiations, with Eckardstein reputedly listening to their conversation and only successfully managing to comprehend the words "Morocco" and "Egypt". Chamberlain had contributed to making possible the Anglo-French [[Entente Cordiale]] that would occur in 1904.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

===Conclusion of the Boer War: 1900–02===
Despite Chamberlain's and popular belief throughout the general election campaign, the Boers had not been subdued, and the "[[Guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] business" to which Chamberlain referred persisted through May 1902. As the war dragged on Chamberlain was caught between Unionists demanding a more effective military policy and many Liberals denouncing the conduct of the war.<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 18, 1901 |title=Address in answer to His Majesty's Most Gracious Speech |url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1901/feb/18/address-in-answer-to-his-majestys-most |access-date=2024-10-22 |website=Hansard Parliament Archives}}</ref>

====Concentration camps scandal====
{{Main|Second Boer War concentration camps}}
Publicly, Chamberlain called for greater deference to Roberts's military judgment and administration, insisting upon the separation of civil and military authority. However public pressure on Chamberlain and the civilian government to intervene intensified following the exposition of concentration camps and the poor conditions therein. Chamberlain had originally questioned the wisdom of establishing the camps, intended to house refugee families, but tolerated them out of deference to the military.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

As the scandal intensified in the autumn of 1901 Chamberlain strengthened civilian administration, though he refused to criticise the military publicly. He outlined to Milner the importance of making the camps as habitable as possible, asking whether the governor-general considered medical provisions adequate. Chamberlain also stipulated that unhealthy camps should be evacuated, overruling the Army where necessary. By 1902 the death rate in the camps had halved, ultimately falling below the usual mortality rate in rural South Africa.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

====Peace====
{{Main|Treaty of Vereeniging}}
Despite the concerns of Chancellor of the Exchequer [[Michael Edward Hicks Beach, 1st Earl St Aldwyn|Michael Hicks Beach]] over the increasing cost of the war, Chamberlain maintained insistence on [[unconditional surrender]] with the support of Salisbury. Though [[Horatio Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener|Lord Kitchener]], commanding British forces in South Africa, was eager to make peace, Milner was content to wait until the Boers sought terms. In April 1902, Boer negotiators accepted Chamberlain's conditions, dissolution of the South African Republic and Orange Free State, in exchange for amnesty for Cape Afrikaner rebels and a payment of the republics' war debts. Chamberlain accepted over Milner's objection, arguing that the cost of continuing the war justified the expenditure. The [[Treaty of Vereeniging]] ended the Boer War on 31 May 1902. The end of war and the annexation of Boer territory presented Chamberlain an opportunity to remodel Britain's imperial system, though at a high cost: the British had put nearly 450,000 troops into the field and had spent nearly £200 million.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

===Salisbury resignation and Balfour government: 1902===
The end of the war allowed Salisbury to finally retire. Though the Prime Minister was keen to be succeeded by his nephew Balfour, Chamberlain's supporters felt the Colonial Secretary, as the most popular figure in the government, had a legitimate claim to the premiership. [[Leo Maxse]] argued forcefully in the ''[[National Review (London)|National Review]]'' for Chamberlain as prime minister; Chamberlain himself was less concerned, assuring Balfour's private secretary, "I have my own work to do and... I shall be quite willing to serve under Balfour."

On 7 July 1902, Chamberlain suffered a head injury in a traffic accident. Chamberlain had three stitches and was told by doctors to cease work immediately and remain in bed for two weeks.

On 11 July, Salisbury went to [[Buckingham Palace]] without notifying his Cabinet colleagues and resigned. The King invited Balfour to form a new government later that day. Before accepting, Balfour met Chamberlain, who said he was content to remain Colonial Secretary. Despite Chamberlain's organisational skills and immense popularity, many Conservatives still mistrusted his Radicalism, and Chamberlain was aware of the difficulties that would be presented by being part of a Liberal Unionist minority leading a Conservative majority. Balfour and Chamberlain were both aware that the Unionist government's survival depended on their co-operation.{{sfn|Marsh|1994|pp=529–31}}

====Education Act 1902====
{{Main|Education Act 1902}}
One of Balfour's first acts as prime minister was the introduction of an Education Act, intended to promote [[National Efficiency]]. Though Chamberlain supported the cause, the Balfour Act abolished the 2,568 school boards established under the [[Elementary Education Act 1870]] ([[33 & 34 Vict.]] c. 75) which remained popular with Nonconformists and Radicals and replaced them with [[local education authorities]] to administer a state centred system of primary, secondary and technical schools. The Bill would also give ratepayers' money to voluntary Church of England schools;{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} opposition to that provision in the 1870 Act had spurred on Chamberlain's first involvement in politics.

Chamberlain was aware that the Bill would estrange Nonconformists, Radicals and many Liberal Unionists from the government, but could not oppose it without risking his cabinet post. In response to Chamberlain's warning and suggestion that voluntary Church schools receive funds from central rather than local government, [[Robert Laurie Morant]] replied that the Boer War had drained the Exchequer.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} Chamberlain did temporarily secure a major concession: local authorities would be given the discretion over the issue of rate aid to voluntary schools. Yet even this was renounced before the Act's passage in December 1902. Chamberlain wrote fatalistically, "I consider the Unionist cause is hopeless at the next election, and we shall certainly lose the majority of the Liberal Unionists once and for all."{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

====Zionism and "Uganda Proposal": 1902–03====
{{Main|Uganda Scheme}}
On 23 October 1902, Chamberlain met with [[Theodor Herzl]] and expressed his sympathy to the Zionist cause. He was open to Herzl's plan for settlement on the [[Sinai Peninsula]] near [[Arish]], but his support was conditional on approval from the Cairo authorities. On 24 April 1903, convinced that such approval would not come, Chamberlain offered Herzl a territory in [[British East Africa]]. The proposal came to be known as the [[Uganda Scheme]], as Chamberlain saw the land as he was passing by on the [[Uganda Railway]], though the territory in question was in [[Kenya Colony|Kenya]]. The proposal was rejected by both the Zionist Organization and British settlers in East Africa but was a major break-through for the Zionists, as Great Britain had engaged them diplomatically and recognised a need to find a territory appropriate for Jewish autonomy under British suzerainty.{{sfn|Marsh|1994|pp=543–45}}

====South African tour: 1902–03====
[[File:Joseph Chamberlain-South Africa-001.jpg|thumb|A cornerstone laid by Mrs Chamberlain during her husband's South African tour]]
From 26 December 1902 to 25 February 1903, Chamberlain left Britain for a South African tour, seeking to promote Anglo-Afrikaner conciliation and integration into the British Empire. In [[Colony of Natal|Natal]], Chamberlain was given a rapturous welcome. In the former Transvaal, he met Boer leaders who were attempting unsuccessfully to alter the peace terms. The reception given to Chamberlain in the former Orange Free State, (at the time renamed the [[Orange River Colony]]) was surprisingly friendly, although he engaged in a two-hour argument with General [[James Barry Munnik Hertzog]], who accused the British government of violating three terms of the treaty.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

During his visit, Chamberlain became convinced that the Boer territories required a period of government by the British crown before being granted self-governance within the empire. In the Cape, Chamberlain found that the [[Afrikaner Bond]] was more affable regarding his visit than many members of the English speaking [[Progressive Party (Cape Colony)|Progressive Party]], now under the leadership of Jameson, who called Chamberlain "the callous devil from Birmingham". Chamberlain successfully persuaded the prime minister, [[John Gordon Sprigg]], to hold elections as soon as possible, a positive act considering the hostile nature of the [[Parliament of the Cape of Good Hope|Cape Parliament]] since 1899. During the tour, Chamberlain and his wife visited 29 towns, and he delivered 64 speeches and received 84 deputations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Joseph Chamberlain {{!}} South African History Online |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/people/joseph-chamberlain |access-date=2025-05-14 |website=www.sahistory.org.za}}</ref>