Editing Iodine (section)

===Dietary recommendations and intake===
The daily levels of intake recommended by the [[United States]] [[National Academy of Medicine]] are between 110 and 130 [[microgram|μg]] for infants up to 12 months, 90&nbsp;μg for children up to eight years, 130&nbsp;μg for children up to 13 years, 150&nbsp;μg for adults, 220&nbsp;μg for pregnant women and 290&nbsp;μg for lactating women.<ref name="lpi" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://iom.edu/en/Global/News%20Announcements/~/media/Files/Activity%20Files/Nutrition/DRIs/DRISummaryListing2.ashx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091030004039/http://iom.edu/en/Global/News%20Announcements/~/media/Files/Activity%20Files/Nutrition/DRIs/DRISummaryListing2.ashx |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 October 2009 |title=Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Recommended Intakes for Individuals, Vitamins |publisher=[[Institute of Medicine]] |date=2004 |access-date=9 June 2010 }}</ref> The Tolerable Upper Intake Level (TUIL) for adults is 1,100&nbsp;μg/day.<ref name="InstituteofMedicine">{{cite book| author = United States National Research Council| date = 2000| title = Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc| pages = 258–259| publisher = National Academies Press| url = http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10026&page=258| doi = 10.17226/10026| pmid = 25057538| isbn = 978-0-309-07279-3| access-date = 9 March 2008| archive-date = 25 July 2015| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150725203752/http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10026&page=258| url-status = live}}</ref> This upper limit was assessed by analysing the effect of supplementation on [[thyroid-stimulating hormone]].<ref name="Patrick2008" />

The [[European Food Safety Authority]] (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR; AI and UL are defined the same as in the United States. For women and men ages 18 and older, the PRI for iodine is set at 150&nbsp;μg/day; the PRI during pregnancy and lactation is 200&nbsp;μg/day. For children aged 1–17 years, the PRI increases with age from 90 to 130&nbsp;μg/day. These PRIs are comparable to the U.S. RDAs with the exception of that for lactation.<ref>{{cite web| title = Overview on Dietary Reference Values for the EU population as derived by the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies| year = 2017| url = https://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/assets/DRV_Summary_tables_jan_17.pdf| access-date = 3 December 2023| archive-date = 28 August 2017| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170828082247/https://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/assets/DRV_Summary_tables_jan_17.pdf| url-status = live}}</ref>

The thyroid gland needs 70&nbsp;μg/day of iodine to synthesise the requisite daily amounts of T4 and T3.<ref name="lpi" /> The higher recommended daily allowance levels of iodine seem necessary for optimal function of a number of body systems, including [[Mammary gland|mammary glands]], [[gastric mucosa]], [[salivary gland]]s, [[Brain cell|brain cells]], [[choroid plexus]], [[thymus]], [[artery|arteries]].<ref name="lpi" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Venturi S, Venturi M | title = Iodine, thymus, and immunity | journal = Nutrition | volume = 25 | issue = 9 | pages = 977–979 | date = September 2009 | pmid = 19647627 | doi = 10.1016/j.nut.2009.06.002 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ullberg S, Ewaldsson B | title = Distribution of radio-iodine studied by whole-body autoradiography | journal = Acta Radiologica | volume = 2 | pages = 24–32 | date = February 1964 | pmid = 14153759 | doi = 10.3109/02841866409134127 }}</ref><ref name="Venturi, Sebastiano 2014 185–205">{{cite journal| vauthors = Venturi S |title=Iodine, PUFAs and Iodolipids in Health and Disease: An Evolutionary Perspective|journal=Human Evolution|volume= 29 |issue= 1–3|pages=185–205|year=2014|issn=0393-9375}}</ref>

Natural food sources of iodine include [[seafood]] which contains [[fish]], [[Seaweed|seaweeds]], [[kelp]], [[shellfish]] and other [[Food|foods]] which contain [[Dairy product|dairy products]], [[Eggs as food|eggs]], [[Meat|meats]], [[Vegetable|vegetables]], so long as the animals ate iodine richly, and the plants are grown on iodine-rich soil.<ref>{{cite web| publisher =Iodine Global Network|url =http://ign.org/p142002146.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150813130042/http://ign.org/p142002146.html|archive-date=13 August 2015|title=Where do we get iodine from?|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name = medlineplus002421/> [[Iodised salt]] is fortified with [[potassium iodate]], a salt of iodine, potassium, oxygen.<ref name="medlineplus002421">{{cite encyclopedia| url = https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002421.htm| title = Iodine in diet| encyclopedia = MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia| access-date = 7 April 2016| archive-date = 5 July 2016| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160705122918/https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002421.htm| url-status = live}}</ref><ref name="American Thyroid Association">{{cite web|title=American Thyroid Association|url=http://www.thyroid.org/iodine-deficiency/|work=thyroid.org|publisher=American Thyroid Association|access-date=4 April 2014|archive-date=3 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803045045/https://www.thyroid.org/iodine-deficiency/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.waitrose.com/ecom/products/cerebos-iodised-table-salt/559124-79136-79137 | title = Cerebos iodised table salt | year = 2023 | website = [[Waitrose]] | access-date = 30 May 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230328192627/https://www.waitrose.com/ecom/products/cerebos-iodised-table-salt/559124-79136-79137 | archive-date = 28 March 2023}}</ref>

As of 2000, the median intake of iodine from food in the United States was 240 to 300&nbsp;μg/day for men and 190 to 210&nbsp;μg/day for women.<ref name="InstituteofMedicine" /> The general US population has adequate iodine nutrition,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Caldwell KL, Makhmudov A, Ely E, Jones RL, Wang RY | title = Iodine status of the U.S. population, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2005–2006 and 2007–2008 | journal = Thyroid | volume = 21 | issue = 4 | pages = 419–427 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21323596 | doi = 10.1089/thy.2010.0077 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1235283 | access-date = 29 September 2020 | archive-date = 2 December 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221202135223/https://zenodo.org/record/1235283 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="Lueng">{{cite journal | vauthors = Leung AM, Braverman LE, Pearce EN | title = History of U.S. iodine fortification and supplementation | journal = Nutrients | volume = 4 | issue = 11 | pages = 1740–1746 | date = November 2012 | pmid = 23201844 | pmc = 3509517 | doi = 10.3390/nu4111740 | doi-access = free }}</ref> with lactating women and pregnant women having a mild risk of deficiency.<ref name="Lueng" /> In Japan, consumption was considered much higher, ranging between 5,280&nbsp;μg/day to 13,800&nbsp;μg/day from [[wakame]] and [[kombu]] that are eaten,<ref name="Patrick2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Patrick L | title = Iodine: deficiency and therapeutic considerations | journal = Alternative Medicine Review | volume = 13 | issue = 2 | pages = 116–127 | date = June 2008 | pmid = 18590348 | url = http://www.thorne.com/altmedrev/.fulltext/13/2/116.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130531112100/http://www.thorne.com/altmedrev/.fulltext/13/2/116.pdf | archive-date = 31 May 2013 }}</ref> both in the form of kombu and wakame and kombu and wakame [[umami]] [[Extract|extracts]] for [[Stock (food)|soup stock]] and [[Potato chip|potato chips]]. However, new studies suggest that Japan's consumption is closer to 1,000–3,000&nbsp;μg/day.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zava TT, Zava DT | title = Assessment of Japanese iodine intake based on seaweed consumption in Japan: A literature-based analysis | journal = Thyroid Research | volume = 4 | pages = 14 | date = October 2011 | pmid = 21975053 | pmc = 3204293 | doi = 10.1186/1756-6614-4-14 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The adult UL in Japan was last revised to 3,000&nbsp;μg/day in 2015.<ref>{{cite web |title=Overview of Dietary Reference Intakes for Japanese (2015) |publisher=Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare, Japan |url=http://www.mhlw.go.jp/file/06-Seisakujouhou-10900000-Kenkoukyoku/Overview.pdf |access-date=14 March 2022 |archive-date=23 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423083531/https://www.mhlw.go.jp/file/06-Seisakujouhou-10900000-Kenkoukyoku/Overview.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

After iodine fortification programs such as iodisation of [[Sodium chloride|salt]] have been done, some cases of iodine-induced [[hyperthyroidism]] have been observed (so-called [[Jod-Basedow phenomenon]]). The condition occurs mainly in people above 40 years of age, and the risk is higher when iodine deficiency is high and the first rise in iodine consumption is high.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wu T, Liu GJ, Li P, Clar C | title = Iodised salt for preventing iodine deficiency disorders | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2010 | issue = 3 | pages = CD003204 | date = 2002 | pmid = 12137681 | pmc = 9006116 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD003204 | veditors = Wu T }}</ref>