Editing History of Ukraine (section)

=== Empires and Ukrainian National Revival ===
{{main|Ukrainian National Revival}}
{{see also|Austro-Hungarian Empire|Russian Empire}}

Under the reign of [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]] (1801–1825), the Russian presence in Ukraine was largely limited to the imperial army and its bureaucracy. However, by the reign of [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] (1825–1855), Russia had established a centralized administration in Ukraine. After suppressing the [[November Uprising]] of 1830, the tsarist regime implemented Russification policies, particularly on the [[Right-bank Ukraine]]. These policies not only suppressed the [[Ukrainian language]] but also aimed to weaken local traditions by emphasizing loyalty to the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], which actively promoted [[Russification]] in contrast to the [[Uniate Church]]'s earlier influence in Western Ukraine.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=History of Ukraine |url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CH%5CI%5CHistoryofUkraine.htm |access-date=14 September 2022 |website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com}}</ref>

The 1861 [[Emancipation reform of 1861|emancipation of serfs]] had a profound effect on Ukraine, as 42% of its population were serfs. By the late 19th century, heavy taxes, rapid population growth, and land shortages led to widespread impoverishment among the peasantry. Many rural Ukrainians began migrating to cities, where [[industrialization]] and urban development created new economic opportunities but also fostered a growing sense of class consciousness. The construction of the first railway track in 1866 not only integrated Ukraine’s economy into the Russian imperial system but also facilitated the mobility of workers and goods. Despite their hardships, Ukrainian peasants and workers contributed significantly to the empire’s economy, with the [[Ukrainian steppe|steppe regions]] producing 20% of the world's wheat and 80% of the empire's sugar.<ref name=":2" />

[[File:Учасники з’їзду українських письменників з нагоди 100-річчя виходу в світ «Енеїди».jpeg|thumb|The board and members of the [[Shevchenko Scientific Society]] celebrating the 100th anniversary of the publication of [[Ivan Kotliarevsky]]'s [[Eneida]], [[Lviv]], 31 October 1898: Sitting in the first row: Mykhaylo Pavlyk, [[Yevheniya Yaroshynska]], [[Nataliya Kobrynska|Natalia Kobrynska]], [[Olha Kobylianska]], Sylvester Lepky, Andriy Chaykovsky, Kost Pankivsky. In the second row: Ivan Kopach, [[Volodymyr Hnatiuk]], Osyp Makovej, [[Mykhailo Hrushevsky]], [[Ivan Franko]], Oleksandr Kolessa, [[Bohdan Lepky]]. Standing in the third row: Ivan Petrushevych, [[Filaret Kolessa]], Yossyp Kyshakevych, [[Ivan Trush]], Denys Lukianovych, [[Mykola Ivasyuk]]]]
The [[Ukrainian national revival]] began in the late 18th century with the emergence of modern [[Ukrainian literature]], spearheaded by [[Ivan Kotliarevsky]]. Prominent 19th-century Ukrainian authors included [[Taras Shevchenko]], [[Mykhailo Kotsiubynsky]], and [[Lesya Ukrainka]] in the Russian Empire, and [[Ivan Franko]] in [[Austria-Hungary]]. The rise of a Ukrainian intelligentsia, increasingly composed of commoners and peasants, challenged the dominance of the traditional nobility and fueled the movement for national rights and social justice. However, fearing the rise of separatism, the Russian government imposed strict limits on Ukrainian language and culture. In 1863, the [[Valuev Circular]] banned the use of Ukrainian in religious and educational texts. Further repression came with the [[Ems Ukaz]] in 1876, which prohibited Ukrainian-language publications, the import of Ukrainian books from abroad, the use of Ukrainian in theater, and even public readings. Ukrainian schools were also suppressed. These policies prompted many Ukrainian intellectuals, such as [[Mykhailo Drahomanov]] and [[Mykhailo Hrushevsky]], to flee to Austrian-ruled Western Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 August 2016 |title=Документи про заборону української мови |url=http://ridivira.com/uk/buttia-ukraintsiv/397-dokumenty-pro-zaboronu-ukrainskoi-movy |access-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819125540/http://ridivira.com/uk/buttia-ukraintsiv/397-dokumenty-pro-zaboronu-ukrainskoi-movy |archive-date=19 August 2016 }}</ref> In addition, the development of underground educational organizations, such as the "[[Prosvita]]" society, played a critical role in preserving Ukrainian culture. Despite the restrictions, Ukrainians within the [[Russian Empire]] sometimes succeeded in advancing within the system, often blending loyalty to the tsar with a subtle promotion of their heritage.

The fate of Ukrainians under the [[Austrian Empire]] was markedly different. In Austrian-ruled [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]], Ukrainians found themselves in a delicate position within the broader Russian-Austrian rivalry for influence in Central and Southern Europe. Unlike in the Russian Empire, Galicia’s ruling elite were primarily of Austrian or Polish descent, while the Ruthenian population remained predominantly peasant. During the 19th century, [[Galician Russophilia|Russophilia]] was initially common among Galicia’s Slavic population. However, the influx of Ukrainian intellectuals fleeing Russian repression, combined with Austrian intervention, gradually replaced Russophilia with a growing [[Ukrainophilia]]. This sentiment spread back into Russian-ruled Ukraine, fueling the national revival.<ref name=":2" />

The 2.4 million Ukrainians under Habsburg rule lived primarily in Eastern Galicia, with 95% of them being peasants. The region remained one of the poorest in [[Europe]], with persistent land shortages and limited industrialization. Nevertheless, the [[Greek Catholic Church]] in Galicia became a key institution in preserving Ukrainian culture and fostering national identity. The first Ukrainian-language newspaper, ''[[Zoria Halytska]]'', launched in 1848, symbolized the growing national awakening. Many Ukrainians from Galicia and other Austrian territories also emigrated to [[North America]] and [[South America]] during this period, seeking economic opportunities and escaping poverty.<ref>Kost' Levytskyi, ''The History of the Political Thought of the Galician Ukrainians, 1848–1914'', (Lviv, 1926)</ref>

The late 19th century witnessed a slow but steady growth of Ukrainian urban populations and the beginnings of a political awakening. Ukrainians in Galicia formed the [[Supreme Ruthenian Council]] and began advocating for autonomy and reforms, such as land redistribution. In Russian Ukraine, underground networks spread literature, education, and national ideas among the peasantry, contributing to the resilience of Ukrainian identity under challenging conditions.