Editing Ethics (section)

== Related fields ==
=== Value theory ===
{{main|Value theory}}
Value theory, also called axiology,{{efn|There are disagreements in the academic literature about whether they are synonyms or whether one or the other is the wider term.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Schroeder|2021|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Hirose|Olson|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} | {{harvnb|Grenz|Guretzki|Nordling|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Iv-LCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 18]}} }}</ref>}} is the philosophical study of value. It examines the nature and types of value.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Smith|Thomas|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Schroeder|2021|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Hirose|Olson|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} }}</ref> A central distinction is between [[Instrumental and intrinsic value|intrinsic and instrumental value]]. An entity has intrinsic value if it is good in itself or good for its own sake. An entity has instrumental value if it is valuable as a means to something else, for example, by causing something that has intrinsic value.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Schroeder|2021|loc=§ 2.1 Intrinsic Value}} | {{harvnb|Zimmerman|Bradley|2019|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Other topics include what kinds of things have value and how valuable they are. For instance, axiological hedonists say that [[pleasure]] is the only source of intrinsic value and that the magnitude of value corresponds to the degree of pleasure. Axiological pluralists, by contrast, hold that there are different sources of intrinsic value, such as happiness, knowledge, and beauty.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Schroeder|2021|loc=§ 2.2 Monism/Pluralism}} | {{harvnb|Zimmerman|Bradley|2019|loc=§ 1. What Has Intrinsic Value?}} | {{harvnb|de Bres|2014|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-rawls-lexicon/hedonism/602FBE3D4ACFED4422C43BCCBA3BAB48 336–338]}} }}</ref>

There are disagreements about the exact relation between value theory and ethics. Some philosophers characterize value theory as a subdiscipline of ethics while others see value theory as the broader term that encompasses other fields besides ethics, such as [[aesthetics]] and [[political philosophy]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Schroeder|2021|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Cowan|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_2jDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 17–18]}} | {{harvnb|Stecker|2010|pp=525–526}} }}</ref> A different characterization sees the two disciplines as overlapping but distinct fields.<ref>{{harvnb|Hirose|Olson|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}}</ref> The term [[axiological ethics]] is sometimes used for the discipline studying this overlap, that is, the part of ethics that studies values.<ref>{{harvnb|Kupperman|2005|pp=73–74}}</ref> The two disciplines are sometimes distinguished based on their focus: ethics is about moral behavior or what is right while value theory is about value or what is [[good]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Calida|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2LVrEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA77 77–79]}} | {{harvnb|Grenz|Guretzki|Nordling|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Iv-LCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 18]}} }}</ref> Some ethical theories, like consequentialism, stand very close to value theory by defining what is right in terms of what is good. But this is not true for ethics in general and deontological theories tend to reject the idea that what is good can be used to define what is right.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crisp|2005|pp=200–201}} | {{harvnb|Alexander|Moore|2021|loc=§ 1. Deontology's Foil: Consequentialism}} | {{harvnb|Schroeder|2021|loc=§ 3. Relation to the Deontic}} }}</ref>{{efn|For example, the deontologist [[W. D. Ross|David Ross]] holds that the principles of right actions are distinct from the principles of value. He says that the terms ''good'' and ''right'' mean different things and should not be confused with one another.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Skelton|2022|loc=§ 4. Ross's Distinctive Moral Framework: The Right and the Good}} | {{harvnb|Simpson|loc=§ 6. Ross's Ethical Theory: Main Components and Principles}} }}</ref>}}

=== Moral psychology ===
{{main|Moral psychology}}
Moral psychology explores the psychological foundations and processes involved in moral behavior. It is an [[empirical science]] that studies how humans think and act in moral contexts. It is interested in how [[moral reasoning]] and judgments take place, how [[moral character]] forms, what sensitivity people have to moral evaluations, and how people attribute and react to [[moral responsibility]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Doris|Stich|Phillips|Walmsley|2020|loc=Lead section, § Introduction: What Is Moral Psychology?}} | {{harvnb|Thoma|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SqBhCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA230 230–231]}} | {{harvnb|Rudy-Hiller|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=j81kEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA509 509]}} }}</ref>

One of its key topics is [[moral development]] or the question of how morality develops on a psychological level from infancy to adulthood.<ref>{{harvnb|Puka|loc=Lead section, § 1. What It Is}}</ref> According to [[Lawrence Kohlberg]], children go through different [[Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development|stages of moral development]] as they understand moral principles first as fixed rules governing reward and punishment, then as conventional social norms, and later as abstract principles of what is objectively right across societies.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Linn|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vayVldaXP-0C&pg=PA330 330]}} | {{harvnb|Eysenck|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rU9MRvYIh5YC&pg=PA586 586–588]}} }}</ref> A closely related question is whether and how people can be [[Moral education|taught to act morally]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Meyer|2023|loc=Abstract, lead section}} | {{harvnb|Matsuba|Murzyn|Hart|2011|pp=181–182}} }}</ref>

[[Evolutionary ethics]], a closely related field, explores how [[Evolution of morality|evolutionary processes have shaped ethics]]. One of its key ideas is that [[natural selection]] is responsible for moral behavior and moral sensitivity. It interprets morality as an [[adaptation]] to [[evolutionary pressure]] that augments [[Fitness (biology)|fitness]] by offering a selective advantage.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Schroeder|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Mesoudi|Danielson|2008|pp=229–230}} | {{harvnb|Rice|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YRcAVvmE6eMC&pg=PA153 153]}} }}</ref> [[Altruism]], for example, can provide benefits to group survival by improving cooperation.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rice|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YRcAVvmE6eMC&pg=PA153 153]}} | {{harvnb|Post|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PnP6yF_3gfYC&pg=PA118 118]}} }}</ref> Some theorists, like [[Mark Rowlands]], argue that morality is not limited to humans, meaning that some non-human animals act based on [[moral emotions]]. Others explore evolutionary precursors to morality in non-human animals.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Monsó|Benz-Schwarzburg|Bremhorst|2018|p=283}} | {{harvnb|Fitzpatrick|2017|pp=1151–1152}} }}</ref>

=== Descriptive ethics ===
{{main|Descriptive ethics}}
Descriptive ethics, also called comparative ethics,<ref>{{harvnb|Chism|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fIaHCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA207 207]}}</ref> studies existing moral codes, practices, and beliefs. It investigates and compares moral phenomena in different [[societies]] and different groups within a society. It aims to provide a [[value-neutral]] and empirical description without judging or justifying which practices are objectively right. For instance, the question of how nurses think about the ethical implications of abortion belongs to descriptive ethics. Another example is descriptive business ethics, which describes ethical standards in the context of business, including common practices, official policies, and employee opinions. Descriptive ethics also has a historical dimension by exploring how moral practices and beliefs have changed over time.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sims|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=J6csDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 6]}} | {{harvnb|Barsh|Lisewski|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tSzdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29]}} | {{harvnb|Sulmasy|Sugarman|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QPvoTjDn0B4C&pg=PA11 11]}} | {{harvnb|Pera|Tonder|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=S11Eg3KjcOAC&pg=PA7 7]}} | {{harvnb|Kagan|1998|pp=7–10}} }}</ref>

Descriptive ethics is a multidisciplinary field that is covered by disciplines such as [[anthropology]], [[sociology]], [[psychology]], and [[history]]. Its empirical outlook contrasts with the philosophical inquiry into normative questions, such as which ethical principles are correct and how to justify them.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sulmasy|Sugarman|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QPvoTjDn0B4C&pg=PA11 11]}} | {{harvnb|Pera|Tonder|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=S11Eg3KjcOAC&pg=PA7 7]}} | {{harvnb|Funk|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kK4SEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA475 175]}} }}</ref>