Editing Dome (section)

== History ==
[[File:some famous domes.svg|thumb|Some historical domes to scale]]
=== Early history and simple domes ===
{{Main|History of early and simple domes}}
[[File:Apache Wickiup, Edward Curtis, 1903.jpg|thumb|left|[[Apache]] [[wigwam]], by [[Edward S. Curtis]], {{c.|1903}}]]

Cultures from [[Prehistory|pre-history]] to modern times constructed domed dwellings using local materials. Although it is not known when the first dome was created, sporadic examples of early domed structures have been discovered. The earliest discovered may be four small dwellings made of [[Mammoth]] tusks and bones. The first was found by a farmer in [[Mezhyrich, Cherkasy Oblast|Mezhirich]], Ukraine, in 1965 while he was digging in his cellar and archaeologists unearthed three more.{{sfn|Hitchcock}} They date from 19,280 – 11,700 BC.{{sfn|Palmer|Pettitt|Bahn|2005|p=24}}

In [[Modern history|modern times]], the creation of relatively simple dome-like structures has been documented among various indigenous peoples around the world. The [[wigwam]] was made by [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] using arched branches or poles covered with grass or hides. The [[Efé people]] of central Africa construct similar [[Hut (dwelling)|structures]], using leaves as shingles.{{sfn|Wilkie|Morelli|2000}} Another example is the [[igloo]], a shelter built from blocks of compact snow and used by the [[Inuit]], among others. The [[Himba people]] of [[Namibia]] construct "desert igloos" of [[wattle and daub]] for use as temporary shelters at seasonal cattle camps, and as permanent homes by the poor.{{sfn|Crandall|2000|pp=34–35}} Extraordinarily thin [[Musgum mud huts|domes of sun-baked clay]] 20 feet in diameter, 30 feet high, and nearly parabolic in curve, are known from [[Cameroon]].{{sfn|Creswell|1915a|p=155}}

The historical development from structures like these to more sophisticated domes is not well documented. That the dome was known to early [[Mesopotamia]] may explain the existence of domes in both [[China]] and [[Western World|the West]] in the first millennium BC.{{sfn|Hill|1996|p=69}} Another explanation, however, is that the use of the dome shape in construction did not have a single point of origin and was common in virtually all cultures long before domes were constructed with enduring materials.{{sfn|Smith|1950|p=6}}

Corbelled stone domes have been found from the [[Neolithic|Neolithic period]] in the [[ancient Near East]], and in the Middle East to Western Europe from antiquity.{{sfn|Leick|2003|p=64}}{{sfn|Mainstone|2001|p=116}} The kings of [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid Persia]] held audiences and festivals in domical tents derived from the nomadic traditions of central Asia.{{sfn|Smith|1950|pp=81–82}} Simple domical mausoleums existed in the Hellenistic period.{{sfn|Grabar|1963|p=194}} [[India]]n bas-relief sculptures from [[Sanchi|Sāñcī]] (1st century BC), [[Bharhut|Bhārhut]] (2nd century BC), and [[Amaravathi, Palnadu district|Amarāvatī]] (2nd century BC), show domed huts, shrines, and pavilions.{{sfn|Deva|1988|pp=5-10}} The remains of a large domed circular hall in the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] capital city of [[Nisa, Turkmenistan|Nyssa]] has been dated to perhaps the first century AD, showing "...the existence of a monumental domical tradition in Central Asia that had hitherto been unknown and which seems to have preceded Roman Imperial monuments or at least to have grown independently from them."{{sfn|Grabar|1963|p=192}} It likely had a wooden dome.{{sfn|Ashkan|Ahmad|2009|p=99}}

=== Persian domes ===
{{main|History of Persian domes}}
{{See also|Gonbad}}
[[File:Sheikh Lotfallah Esfahan.JPG|thumb|right|[[Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque]], [[Isfahan]]]]

[[Iranian architecture|Persian architecture]] likely inherited an architectural tradition of dome-building dating back to the earliest Mesopotamian domes.{{sfn|Spiers|1911|p=957}} Due to the scarcity of wood in many areas of the [[Iranian plateau]] and [[Greater Iran]], domes were an important part of [[vernacular architecture]] throughout Persian history.{{sfn|O'Kane|1995}} The Persian invention of the [[squinch]], a series of concentric arches forming a half-cone over the corner of a room, enabled the transition from the walls of a square chamber to an octagonal base for a dome in a way reliable enough for large constructions and domes moved to the forefront of Persian architecture as a result.{{sfn|Creswell|1915a|p=148}} Pre-Islamic domes in Persia are commonly semi-elliptical, with pointed domes and those with conical outer shells being the majority of the domes in the Islamic periods.{{sfn|Ashkan|Ahmad|2009|p=113}}

The area of north-eastern Iran was, along with Egypt, one of two areas notable for early developments in Islamic domed mausoleums, which appear in the tenth century.{{sfn|Grabar|1963|pp=192–194}} The [[Samanid Mausoleum]] in [[Transoxiana]] dates to no later than 943 and is the first to have squinches create a regular octagon as a base for the dome, which then became the standard practice. Cylindrical or polygonal plan tower tombs with conical roofs over domes also exist beginning in the 11th century.{{sfn|O'Kane|1995}}

The [[Seljuk Empire]]'s notables built tomb-towers, called "Turkish Triangles", as well as cube mausoleums covered with a variety of dome forms. Seljuk domes included conical, semi-circular, and pointed shapes in one or two shells. Shallow semi-circular domes are mainly found from the Seljuk era. The double-shell domes were either discontinuous or continuous.{{sfn|Ashkan|Ahmad|2009|pp=102, 104, 105, 113}} The domed enclosure of the [[Jameh Mosque of Isfahan]], built in 1086-7 by [[Nizam al-Mulk]], was the largest masonry dome in the Islamic world at that time, had eight ribs, and introduced a new form of corner squinch with two quarter domes supporting a short barrel vault. In 1088 Tāj-al-Molk, a rival of Nizam al-Mulk, built another dome at the opposite end of the same mosque with interlacing ribs forming five-pointed stars and pentagons. This is considered the landmark Seljuk dome, and may have inspired subsequent patterning and the domes of the Il-Khanate period. The use of tile and of plain or painted plaster to decorate dome interiors, rather than brick, increased under the Seljuks.{{sfn|O'Kane|1995}}

Beginning in the [[Ilkhanate]], Persian domes achieved their final configuration of structural supports, zone of transition, drum, and shells, and subsequent evolution was restricted to variations in form and shell geometry. Characteristic of these domes are the use of high drums and several types of discontinuous double-shells, and the development of triple-shells and internal stiffeners occurred at this time. The construction of tomb towers decreased.{{sfn|Ashkan|Ahmad|2009|pp=105, 110}} The 7.5 meter wide double dome of [[Soltan Bakht Agha Mausoleum]] (1351–1352) is the earliest known example in which the two shells of the dome have significantly different profiles, which spread rapidly throughout the region.{{sfn|Ashkan|Ahmad|2009|p=106}} The development of taller drums also continued into the Timurid period.{{sfn|O'Kane|1995}} The large, bulbous, fluted domes on tall drums that are characteristic of 15th century Timurid architecture were the culmination of the Central Asian and Iranian tradition of tall domes with glazed tile coverings in blue and other colors.{{sfn|Peterson|1996|p=68}}

The domes of the [[Safavid dynasty]] (1501–1732) are characterized by a distinctive bulbous profile and are considered the last generation of Persian domes. They are generally thinner than earlier domes and are decorated with a variety of colored glazed tiles and complex vegetal patterns, and they were influential on those of other Islamic styles, such as the Mughal architecture of India.{{sfn|Ashkan|Ahmad|2009|pp=102, 108–109}} An exaggerated style of onion dome on a short drum, as can be seen at the [[Shah Cheragh]] (1852–1853), first appeared in the [[Qajar dynasty|Qajar period]]. Domes have remained important in modern mausoleums, and domed [[Ab anbar|cisterns]] and [[Yakhchal|icehouses]] remain common sights in the countryside.{{sfn|O'Kane|1995}}

=== East Asian domes ===
[[File:Model of the Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb.jpg|thumb|left|Model of the [[Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb Museum|Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb]] (25–220 AD)]]
Very little has survived of ancient [[Chinese architecture]], due to the extensive use of timber as a building material. Brick and stone vaults used in tomb construction have survived, and the corbeled dome was used, rarely, in tombs and temples.{{sfn|Kuiper|2011|pp=266–267}} The earliest true domes found in Chinese tombs were shallow cloister vaults, called ''simian jieding'', derived from the Han use of [[barrel vault]]ing. Unlike the cloister vaults of western Europe, the corners are rounded off as they rise.{{sfn|Dien|2007|pp=79–80}} The first known example is a brick tomb dating from the end of the [[Han dynasty#Western Han|Western Han period]], near the modern [[Xiangcheng City|city of Xiangcheng]] in [[Henan]] Province. These four-sided domes used small interlocking bricks and enabled a square space near the entrance of a tomb large enough for several people that may have been used for funeral ceremonies. The interlocking brick technique was rapidly adopted and four-sided domes became widespread outside Henan by the end of the first century AD.{{sfn|Nickel|2015|p=55}}

A model of a tomb found with a shallow true dome from the late [[Han dynasty]] (206 BC – 220 AD) can be seen at the Guangzhou Museum (Canton).{{sfn|Needham|Gwei-Djen|1962|p=167}} Another, the [[Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb Museum|Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb]], found in Hong Kong in 1955, has a design common among Eastern Han dynasty (25 AD – 220 AD) tombs in South China: a barrel vaulted entrance leading to a domed front hall with barrel vaulted chambers branching from it in a cross shape. It is the only such tomb that has been found in Hong Kong and is exhibited as part of the [[Hong Kong Museum of History]].{{sfn|lcsd|2014}}{{sfn|Tsan-wing|Kin-wah|2001|p=294}}

During the [[Three Kingdoms]] period (220–280), the "cross-joint dome" (''siyuxuanjinshi'') was developed under the [[Eastern Wu|Wu]] and [[Jin dynasty (265-420)|Western Jin]] dynasties south of the [[Yangtze River]], with arcs building out from the corners of a square room until they met and joined at the center. These domes were stronger, had a steeped angle, and could cover larger areas than the relatively shallow cloister vaults. Over time, they were made taller and wider. There were also corbel vaults, called ''diese'', although these are the weakest type.{{sfn|Dien|2007|p=79}} Some tombs of the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279) have beehive domes.{{sfn|Needham|Gwei-Djen|1962|p=167}}

The [[Seokguram|Seokguram Grotto]] (751), built in the Korean city of [[Gyeongju]] during the [[Unified Silla]] period, includes a domed chamber 7.2 meters wide covering a statue of [[the Buddha]]. The dome is made from blocks of [[granite]], with the flat cap of the dome decorated with a [[Sacred lotus in religious art|lotus flower motif]]. The dome is unique in north-east Asia.{{sfn|Cambon|2022|pp=155-157}}

The [[Buddhist|Buddhism]] monastery [[Baoguo Temple (Zhejiang)|Baoguo]] near [[Ningbo]] has three domes dated to 1013. The [[Taoism|Daoist]] monastery [[Yongle Gong]] in [[Shanxi]] has domes in its Hall of the Three Purities, from the 13th century.{{sfn|Steinhardt|2018|p=86}}

The [[Phoenix Mosque|Fenghuang Mosque]] in [[Hangzhou]] has three domes along its back wall dating to the [[Yuan dynasty]]. The central dome is 8 meters in diameter and covered by an octagonal roof. The north and south flanking domes are 6.8 meters and 7.2 meters wide, respectively, and covered by hexagonal roofs. The zones of transition under the domes use a tiered system similar to [[muqarnas]] or the corner bracketing found in Chinese temples.{{sfn|Steinhardt|2018|pp=85-86}}

=== Roman and Byzantine domes ===
{{Main|History of Roman and Byzantine domes}}
{{See also|List of Roman domes|}}
[[File:Giovanni Paolo Panini - Interior of the Pantheon, Rome - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] in Rome, painting by [[Giovanni Paolo Pannini]]]]

Roman domes are found in [[Thermae|baths]], villas, palaces, and tombs. [[Oculus (architecture)|oculi]] are common features.{{sfn|Lehmann|1945|pp=247, 254–255}} They are customarily hemispherical in shape and partially or totally concealed on the exterior. To buttress the horizontal thrusts of a large hemispherical masonry dome, the supporting walls were built up beyond the base to at least the haunches of the dome, and the dome was then also sometimes covered with a conical or polygonal roof.{{sfn|Smith|1950|p=9}}

Domes reached monumental size in the Roman [[Roman Empire|Imperial period]].{{sfn|Lehmann|1945|p=249}} Roman baths played a leading role in the development of domed construction in general, and monumental domes in particular. Modest domes in baths dating from the 2nd and 1st centuries BC are seen in [[Pompeii]], in the [[Frigidarium|cold rooms]] of the Terme Stabiane and the Terme del Foro.{{sfn|Lehmann|1945|p=249}}{{sfn|Winter|2006|p=130}} However, the extensive use of domes did not occur before the 1st century AD.{{sfn|Lancaster|2005|p=49}} The growth of domed construction increases under [[Nero|Emperor Nero]] and [[Flavian dynasty|the Flavians]] in the 1st century AD, and during the 2nd century. Centrally-planned halls become increasingly important parts of palace and palace villa layouts beginning in the 1st century, serving as state banqueting halls, audience rooms, or throne rooms.{{sfn|Krautheimer|1986|p=77}} The [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]], a temple in Rome completed by [[Hadrian|Emperor Hadrian]] as part of the [[Baths of Agrippa]], is the most famous, best preserved, and largest Roman dome.{{sfn|Lehmann|1945|p=255}} Segmented domes, made of radially concave wedges or of alternating concave and flat wedges, appear under Hadrian in the 2nd century and most preserved examples of this style date from this period.{{sfn|Lancaster|2005|pp=46, 50}}

In the 3rd century, Imperial mausoleums began to be built as domed rotundas, rather than as [[tumulus]] structures or other types, following similar monuments by private citizens.{{sfn|Johnson|2009}} The technique of building lightweight domes with interlocking hollow ceramic tubes further developed in North Africa and Italy in the late third and early fourth centuries.{{sfn|McClendon|2005|p=16}} In the 4th century, Roman domes proliferated due to changes in the way domes were constructed, including advances in [[Centring|centering]] techniques and the use of brick [[Rib vault|ribbing]].{{sfn|Lancaster|2005|p=161}} The material of choice in construction gradually transitioned during the 4th and 5th centuries from stone or concrete to lighter brick in thin shells.{{sfn|Krautheimer|1986|p=238}} Baptisteries began to be built in the manner of domed mausoleums during the 4th century in Italy. The octagonal [[Lateran Baptistery|Lateran baptistery]] or the baptistery of the Holy Sepulchre may have been the first, and the style spread during the 5th century.{{sfn|Smith|1950|p=56}} By the 5th century, structures with small-scale domed cross plans existed across the Christian world.{{sfn|Krautheimer|1986|p=239}}

With the end of the [[Western Roman Empire]], domes became a signature feature of the church architecture of the surviving [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman]] — or "Byzantine" — Empire.{{sfn|Spiers|1911|p=958}} 6th-century church building by the [[Justinian I|Emperor Justinian]] used the domed cross unit on a monumental scale, and his architects made the domed brick-vaulted central plan standard throughout the Roman east. This divergence with the Roman west from the second third of the 6th century may be considered the beginning of a "Byzantine" architecture.{{sfn|Krautheimer|1986|pp=203, 242}} Justinian's [[Hagia Sophia]] was an original and innovative design with no known precedents in the way it covers a basilica plan with dome and semi-domes. Periodic earthquakes in the region have caused three partial collapses of the dome and necessitated repairs.{{sfn|Freely|Çakmak|2004|pp=90–93, 95–96}}
[[File:Turkey-3019 - Hagia Sophia (2216460729).jpg|thumb|Originally a church, [[Hagia Sophia]] (532–537) by [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] emperor [[Justinian I|Justinian the Great]] was the largest cathedral in the world for nearly a thousand years. ]]

"Cross-domed units", a more secure structural system created by bracing a dome on all four sides with broad arches, became a standard element on a smaller scale in later Byzantine church architecture.{{sfn|Ousterhout|2008b|p=358}}{{sfn|Ousterhout|2008a|p=202}} The [[Cross-in-square]] plan, with a single dome at the crossing or five domes in a quincunx pattern, became widely popular in the [[Middle byzantine art#Periods|Middle Byzantine period (c. 843–1204)]].{{sfn|Krautheimer|1986|p=340}}{{sfn|Darling|2004|p=xliii}}{{sfn|Ousterhout|2008b|p=358}} It is the most common church plan from the tenth century until the [[fall of Constantinople]] in 1453.{{sfn|Rosser|2011|p=137}} Resting domes on circular or polygonal drums pierced with windows eventually became the standard style, with regional characteristics.{{sfn|Krautheimer|1986|p=379}}

In the Byzantine period, domes were normally hemispherical and had, with occasional exceptions, windowed drums. All of the surviving examples in Constantinople are ribbed or pumpkin domes, with the divisions corresponding to the number of windows. Roofing for domes ranged from simple ceramic tile to more expensive, more durable, and more form-fitting lead sheeting. Metal clamps between stone cornice blocks, metal tie rods, and metal chains were also used to stabilize domed construction.{{sfn|Ousterhout|2008a|p=214}} The technique of using double shells for domes, although revived in the Renaissance, originated in Byzantine practice.{{sfn|Wittkower|1963|p=185}}

=== Arabic and Western European domes ===
{{Main|History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes}}
[[File:Dome of the Rock Temple Mount.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Dome of the Rock]] in [[Jerusalem]]]]
The Syria and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] area has a long tradition of domical architecture, including wooden domes in shapes described as "conoid", or similar to pine cones. When the [[Arab Muslims|Arab Muslim]] forces [[Muslim conquest of Syria|conquered the region]], they employed local craftsmen for their buildings and, by the end of the 7th&nbsp;century, the dome had begun to become an architectural symbol of [[Islam]].{{sfn|Smith|1950|p=43}} In addition to religious shrines, such as the [[Dome of the Rock]], domes were used over the audience and throne halls of [[Umayyad]] palaces, and as part of porches, pavilions, fountains, towers and the [[caldarium|calderia]] of baths. Blending the architectural features of both Byzantine and Persian architecture, the domes used both pendentives and squinches and were made in a variety of shapes and materials.{{sfn|Arce|2006|p=209}} Although architecture in the region would decline following the movement of the capital to Iraq under the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]] in 750, mosques built after a revival in the late 11th century usually followed the Umayyad model.{{sfn|Bloom|Blair|2009|pp=111–112}} Early versions of bulbous domes can be seen in mosaic illustrations in Syria dating to the Umayyad period. They were used to cover large buildings in Syria after the eleventh century.{{sfn|Born|1944|p=208}}

Italian church architecture from the late sixth century to the end of the eighth century was influenced less by the trends of Constantinople than by a variety of Byzantine provincial plans.{{sfn|Krautheimer|1986|p=402}} With the [[Charlemagne#Coronation|crowning]] of [[Charlemagne]] as a [[Holy Roman Emperor|new Roman Emperor]], Byzantine influences were largely replaced in a revival of earlier Western building traditions. Occasional exceptions include examples of early quincunx churches at [[Milan]] and near [[Cassino]].{{sfn|Krautheimer|1986|p=402}} Another is the [[Palatine Chapel in Aachen|Palatine Chapel]]. Its domed octagon design was influenced by Byzantine models.{{sfn|Dupré|2001|p=5}}{{sfn|Bullough|1991|pp=57, 89}} It was the largest dome north of the Alps at that time.{{sfn|Langmead|Garnaut|2001|p=60}} [[Venice]], [[Southern Italy]] and [[Sicily]] served as outposts of Middle Byzantine architectural influence in Italy.{{sfn|Krautheimer|1986|p=405}}

The [[Cathedral–Mosque of Córdoba|Great Mosque of Córdoba]] contains the first known examples of the crossed-arch dome type.{{sfn|Fuentes|Huerta|2010|pp=346–347}} The use of corner squinches to support domes was widespread in Islamic architecture by the 10th and 11th centuries.{{sfn|Krautheimer|1986|p=340}} After the ninth century, mosques in North Africa often have a small decorative dome over the mihrab. Additional domes are sometimes used at the corners of the mihrab wall, at the entrance bay, or on the square tower minarets.{{sfn|Kuban|1985|pp=2–4}} Egypt, along with north-eastern Iran, was one of two areas notable for early developments in Islamic mausoleums, beginning in the 10th century.{{sfn|Grabar|1963|p=194}} Fatimid mausoleums were mostly simple square buildings covered by a dome. Domes were smooth or ribbed and had a characteristic Fatimid "keel" shape profile.{{sfn|Kuiper|2011|p=165}}

Domes in [[Romanesque architecture]] are generally found within [[Crossing (architecture)|crossing tower]]s at the intersection of a church's [[nave]] and [[transept]], which conceal the domes externally.{{sfn|Stephenson|Hammond|Davi|2005|p=172}} They are typically octagonal in plan and use corner squinches to translate a square bay into a suitable octagonal base.{{sfn|Fletcher}} They appear "in connection with basilicas almost throughout Europe" between 1050 and 1100.{{sfn|Porter|1928|p=48}} The [[Crusades]], beginning in 1095, also appear to have influenced domed architecture in Western Europe, particularly in the areas around the [[Mediterranean Sea]].{{sfn|Jeffery|2010|p=72}} The [[Knights Templar]], headquartered at the site, built a series of centrally planned churches throughout Europe modeled on the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, with the Dome of the Rock also an influence.{{sfn|Howard|1991|pp=65, 67}} In southwest France, there are over 250 domed Romanesque churches in the [[Périgord]] region alone.{{sfn|Stewart|2008|p=202}} The use of pendentives to support domes in the [[Aquitaine]] region, rather than the squinches more typical of western medieval architecture, strongly implies a Byzantine influence.{{sfn|Moffett|Fazio|Wodehouse|2003}} Gothic domes are uncommon due to the use of [[rib vault]]s over naves, and with church crossings usually focused instead by a tall [[steeple (architecture)|steeple]], but there are examples of small octagonal crossing domes in cathedrals as the style developed from the Romanesque.{{sfn|Stephenson|Hammond|Davi|2005|p=174}}

Star-shaped domes found at the [[Moors|Moorish]] palace of the [[Alhambra]] in Granada, Spain, the [[Alhambra#Palace of the Lions|Hall of the Abencerrajes]] (c. 1333–91) and the Hall of the two Sisters (c. 1333–54), are extraordinarily developed examples of [[muqarnas]] domes.{{sfn|Stephenson|Hammond|Davi|2005|p=174}} In the first half of the fourteenth century, stone blocks replaced bricks as the primary building material in the dome construction of [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Egypt]] and, over the course of 250 years, around 400 domes were built in Cairo to cover the tombs of Mamluk [[sultan]]s and [[emir]]s.{{sfn|Cipriani|Lau|2006|pp=696, 698}} Dome profiles were varied, with "keel-shaped", bulbous, [[ogee]], stilted domes, and others being used. On the drum, angles were [[chamfer]]ed, or sometimes stepped, externally and triple windows were used in a tri-lobed arrangement on the faces.{{sfn|Hillenbrand|1994|p=318}} Bulbous cupolas on minarets were used in Egypt beginning around 1330, spreading to Syria in the following century.{{sfn|Born|1944|p=209}} In the fifteenth century, pilgrimages to and flourishing trade relations with the [[Near East]] exposed the [[Low Countries]] of northwest Europe to the use of bulbous domes in the architecture of the [[Orient]] and such domes apparently became associated with the city of Jerusalem. Multi-story spires with truncated bulbous cupolas supporting smaller cupolas or crowns became popular in the sixteenth century.{{sfn|Born|1944|pp=209–213}}

=== Russian domes ===
[[File:Onion domes of Cathedral of the Annunciation.JPG|thumb|left|[[Gilding|Gilded]] onion domes of the [[Cathedral of the Annunciation, Moscow|Cathedral of the Annunciation]], [[Moscow Kremlin]].]]
The multidomed church is a typical form of Russian church architecture that distinguishes Russia from other Orthodox nations and Christian denominations. Indeed, the earliest Russian churches, built just after the [[Christianization of Kievan Rus']], were multi-domed, which has led some historians to speculate about how Russian pre-Christian pagan temples might have looked. Examples of these early churches are the 13-domed wooden [[Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod]] (989) and the 25-domed stone [[Desyatinnaya Church]] in [[Kiev]] (989–996). The number of domes typically has a symbolical meaning in [[Russian architecture]], for example 13 domes symbolize [[Christ]] with 12 [[Apostles in the New Testament|Apostles]], while 25 domes means the same with an additional 12 Prophets of the [[Old Testament]]. The multiple domes of Russian churches were often comparatively smaller than [[Byzantine]] domes.{{sfn|Kies}}{{sfn|skypalace}}

[[File:Tverskoy District, Moscow, Russia - panoramio (610).jpg|thumb|220px|[[Saint Basil's Cathedral]] (1555–61) in [[Moscow]], [[Russia]]. Its distinctive [[onion dome]]s date to the 1680s.]]
Plentiful timber in Russia made wooden domes common and at least partially contributed to the popularity of [[onion domes]], which were easier to shape in wood than in masonry.{{sfn|Cowan|1977|p=7}} The earliest stone churches in Russia featured Byzantine style domes, however by the [[Early Modern era]] the onion dome had become the predominant form in traditional [[Russian architecture]]. The onion dome is a dome whose shape resembles an [[onion]], after which they are named. Such domes are often larger in diameter than the [[drum (architecture)|drum]]s they sit on, and their height usually exceeds their width. The whole bulbous structure tapers smoothly to a point. Though the earliest preserved Russian domes of such type date from the 16th century, illustrations from older chronicles indicate they have existed since the late 13th century. Like [[tented roofs]]—which were combined with, and sometimes replaced domes in Russian architecture since the 16th century—onion domes initially were used only in wooden churches. Builders introduced them into stone architecture much later, and continued to make their carcasses of either of wood or metal on top of masonry drums.{{sfn|Zagraevsky}}

Russian domes are often [[gilding|gilded]] or brightly painted. A dangerous technique of chemical [[gilding]] using [[mercury (element)|mercury]] had been applied on some occasions until the mid-19th century, most notably in the giant dome of [[Saint Isaac's Cathedral]]. The more modern and safe method of [[gold]] [[electroplating]] was applied for the first time in gilding the domes of the [[Cathedral of Christ the Saviour]] in [[Moscow]], the [[List of tallest Orthodox churches|tallest Eastern Orthodox church]] in the world.{{sfn|galteh}}

===Ukrainian domes===
The domes of the [[Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv|Saint Sophia Cathedral]] and [[Kyiv Pechersk Lavra#Dormition Cathedral|Dormition Cathedral]] were remodeled to the helmet-shaped baroque style by [[Ivan Mazepa]] in the early 18th century, who also paid for gilding of the domes. Mazepa's reign also included the construction of an octagonal western bay with a baroque dome (1672) and five helmet-shaped domes over [[Boris and Gleb Cathedral, Chernihiv|Boris and Gleb Cathedral]] in [[Chernihiv]], which were removed in the 20th century by the Soviet government.{{sfn|Pevny|2009|pp=471, 474, 481}}

=== Ottoman domes ===
[[File:Selimiye Mosque, Dome.jpg|thumb|Selimiye Mosque dome in Edirne, Turkey]]

The rise of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and its spread in [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]] and the [[Balkans]] coincided with the decline of the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk Turks]] and the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Early Ottoman buildings, for almost two centuries after 1300, were characterized by a blending of Ottoman culture and indigenous architecture, and the pendentive dome was used throughout the empire.{{sfn|Hassan|Mazloomi|Omer|2010|pp=125–127}} The Byzantine dome form was adopted and further developed.{{sfn|Peterson|1996|p=68}} [[Ottoman architecture]] made exclusive use of the semi-spherical dome for vaulting over even very small spaces, influenced by the earlier traditions of both [[Byzantine Anatolia]] and [[Central Asia]].{{sfn|Kuban|1987|p=75}} The smaller the structure, the simpler the plan, but mosques of medium size were also covered by single domes.{{sfn|Kuban|1987|pp=93–94}}

Early experiments with large domes include the domed square mosques of [[Çine]] and [[Mudurnu]] under [[Bayezid I]], and the later domed "zawiya-mosques" at Bursa. The [[Üç Şerefeli Mosque]] at Edirne developed the idea of the central dome being a larger version of the domed modules used throughout the rest of the structure to generate open space. This idea became important to the Ottoman style as it developed.{{sfn|Kuban|1987|p=75}}
[[File:P1020390.JPG|thumb|left|[[Sultan Ahmed Mosque|Blue Mosque]] in Istanbul, a World Heritage Site and example of the classical style period of Ottoman architecture, showing Byzantine influence.]]

The [[Bayezid II Mosque, Istanbul|Bayezid II Mosque]] (1501–1506) in Istanbul begins the [[Classical Ottoman architecture|classical period]] in Ottoman architecture, in which the great [[List of mosques commissioned by the Ottoman dynasty|imperial mosques]], with variations, resemble the former Byzantine basilica of [[Hagia Sophia]] in having a large central dome with semi-domes of the same span to the east and west.{{Citation needed|date=December 2019}} Hagia Sophia's central dome arrangement is largely reproduced in three Ottoman mosques in Istanbul: the Bayezid II Mosque, the [[Kılıç Ali Pasha Complex|Kılıç Ali Pasha Mosque]], and the [[Süleymaniye Mosque]].{{sfn|Kuban|1987|p=84}} Other Imperial mosques in Istanbul added semi-domes to the north and south, doing away with the basilica plan, starting with the [[Şehzade Mosque]] and seen again in later examples such as the [[Sultan Ahmed I Mosque]] and the [[New Mosque (Istanbul)|Yeni Cami]].{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=207, 340, 345-346, 358, 394, 408}} The classical period lasted into the 17th century but its peak is associated with the architect [[Mimar Sinan]] in the 16th century.{{sfn|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc="Ottoman"}} In addition to large imperial mosques, he designed hundreds of other monuments, including medium-sized mosques such as the [[Mihrimah Sultan Mosque, Edirnekapı|Mihrimah Sultan Mosque]], [[Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque, Kadırga|Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque]], and [[Rüstem Pasha Mosque]] and the tomb of [[Suleiman the Magnificent]], with its double-shell dome.{{sfn|Kuban|1987|pp=82, 91}} The Süleymaniye Mosque, built from 1550 to 1557, has a main dome 53&nbsp;meters high with a diameter of 26.5&nbsp;meters.{{sfn|Goodwin|2003|p=231}} At the time it was built, the dome was the highest in the Ottoman Empire when measured from sea level, but lower from the floor of the building and smaller in diameter than that of the nearby Hagia Sophia.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}

Another classical domed mosque type is, like the [[Little Hagia Sophia|Byzantine church of Sergius and Bacchus]], the domed polygon within a square. Octagons and hexagons were common, such as those of the Üç Şerefeli Mosque (1437–1447) and the [[Selimiye Mosque, Edirne|Selimiye Mosque]] in Edirne.{{Citation needed|date=December 2019}} The Selimiye Mosque was the first structure built by the Ottomans that had a larger dome than that of the Hagia Sophia. The dome rises above a square bay. Corner semi-domes convert this into an octagon, which muqarnas transition to a circular base. The dome has an average internal diameter of about 31.5 meters, while that of Hagia Sophia averages 31.3 meters.{{sfn|Kuban|1987|p=89}} Designed and built by architect Mimar Sinan between 1568 and 1574, when he finished it he was 86 years old, and he considered the mosque his masterpiece.

=== Italian Renaissance domes ===
{{Main|History of Italian Renaissance domes}}
[[File:Santa Maria del Fiore.jpg|thumb|left|[[Florence Cathedral|The Cathedral]] of [[Florence]] with [[Filippo Brunelleschi|Brunelleschi]]'s dome, Italy]]
[[Filippo Brunelleschi]]'s octagonal brick domical vault over [[Florence Cathedral]] was built between 1420 and 1436 and the lantern surmounting the dome was completed in 1467. The dome is 42 meters wide and made of two shells.{{sfn|Schütz|2002|pp=356–357}} The dome is not itself Renaissance in style, although the lantern is closer.{{sfn|Frankl|Crossley|2000|p=213}} A combination of dome, drum, pendentives, and barrel vaults developed as the characteristic structural forms of large Renaissance churches following a period of innovation in the later fifteenth century.{{sfn|Betts|1993|p=5}} Florence was the first Italian city to develop the new style, followed by Rome and then Venice.{{sfn|Nuttgens|1997|p=181}} Brunelleschi's domes at [[Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence|San Lorenzo]] and the [[Pazzi Chapel]] established them as a key element of Renaissance architecture.{{sfn|Hourihane|2012|p=304}} His plan for the dome of the Pazzi Chapel in Florence's [[Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence|Basilica of Santa Croce]] (1430–52) illustrates the Renaissance enthusiasm for geometry and for the circle as geometry's supreme form. This emphasis on geometric essentials would be very influential.{{sfn|Stephenson|Hammond|Davi|2005|pp=175–176}}

''[[De re aedificatoria]]'', written by [[Leon Battista Alberti]] around 1452, recommends vaults with coffering for churches, as in the Pantheon, and the first design for a dome at St. Peter's Basilica in Rome is usually attributed to him, although the recorded architect is [[Bernardo Rossellino]]. This would culminate in [[Bramante]]'s 1505–06 projects for a wholly new [[St. Peter's Basilica]], marking the beginning of the displacement of the Gothic ribbed vault with the combination of dome and barrel vault, which proceeded throughout the sixteenth century.{{sfn|Betts|1993|pp=5–7}} Bramante's initial design was for a Greek cross plan with a large central hemispherical dome and four smaller domes around it in a [[quincunx]] pattern. Work began in 1506 and continued under a succession of builders over the next 120 years.{{sfn|Nuttgens|1997|p=184}} The dome was completed by [[Giacomo della Porta]] and [[Domenico Fontana]].{{sfn|Nuttgens|1997|p=184}} The publication of [[Sebastiano Serlio]]'s treatise, one of the most popular architectural treatises ever published, was responsible for the spread of the oval in late Renaissance and Baroque architecture throughout Italy, Spain, France, and central Europe.{{sfn|Huerta|2007|pp=230–232}}

The [[Villa Capra "La Rotonda"|Villa Capra]], also known as "La Rotunda", was built by [[Andrea Palladio]] from 1565 to 1569 near [[Vicenza]]. Its highly symmetrical square plan centers on a circular room covered by a dome, and it proved highly influential on the [[Georgian architecture|Georgian architects]] of 18th century England, architects in Russia, and architects in America, [[Thomas Jefferson]] among them. Palladio's two domed churches in Venice are [[Church of San Giorgio Maggiore|San Giorgio Maggiore]] (1565–1610) and [[Il Redentore]] (1577–92), the latter built in thanksgiving for the end of a bad outbreak of [[Bubonic plague|plague]] in the city.{{sfn|Nuttgens|1997|pp=187–189}} The spread of the Renaissance-style dome outside of Italy began with central Europe, although there was often a stylistic delay of a century or two.{{sfn|Melaragno|1991|p=73}}

=== South Asian domes ===
{{Main|History of South Asian domes}}
[[File:Taj Mahal 2012.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Taj Mahal]] in [[Agra]], [[India]] built by [[Shah Jahan]].]]
Hemispherical [[Indian rock-cut architecture|rock-cut]] tombs appear to imitate in stone the early bamboo or timber roofed domed huts with central poles known from the pre-[[Buddhism|Buddhist]] period. Examples include [[Barabar Caves#Sudama cave|Sudama cave]] (3rd century BC) in [[Bihar]], a similar domed chamber at [[Kannur|Cannanora]] in [[Malabar District|Malabar]], and a cave at [[Guntupalli Group of Buddhist Monuments|Guntpalle]] (1st century BC). A rock-cut hemispherical chamber at Manappuram in [[Kerala]] retained a thin central pillar with no structural function.{{sfn|Kim|1960|pp=164-165}} The hemispherical shape of Buddist [[stupa]]s, likely refined forms of burial mounds, may also reflect earlier wooden dome roof construction, such as at [[Ghantasala, Krishna district|Ghantasala]].{{sfn|Kim|1960|pp=165-166}}

[[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent|Islamic rule over northern and central India]] brought with it the use of domes constructed with stone, brick and mortar, and iron dowels and cramps. Centering was made from timber and bamboo. The use of iron cramps to join together adjacent stones was known in pre-Islamic India, and was used at the base of domes for hoop reinforcement. The synthesis of styles created by this introduction of new forms to the [[Hindu temple architecture|Hindu tradition]] of [[Post and lintel|trabeate]] construction created a distinctive architecture.{{sfn|Tappin|2003|pp=1941, 1943–1944}} Domes in pre-Mughal India have a standard squat circular shape with a lotus design and bulbous finial at the top, derived from Hindu architecture. Because the Hindu architectural tradition did not include arches, flat corbels were used to transition from the corners of the room to the dome, rather than squinches.{{sfn|Peterson|1996|p=68}} In contrast to Persian and Ottoman domes, the domes of Indian tombs tend to be more bulbous.{{sfn|Nuttgens|1997|p=157}}
[[File:PK Thatta asv2020-02 img08 Shah Jahan Mosque.jpg|thumb|The [[Shah Jahan Mosque, Thatta|Shah Jahan Mosque]]'s main dome in [[Thatta]], [[Pakistan]], has tiles arranged in a [[Star-shaped|stellate]] pattern to represent the night sky.]]
The earliest examples include the half-domes of the late 13th century [[tomb of Balban]] and the small dome of the tomb of Khan Shahid, which were made of roughly cut material and would have needed covering surface finishes.{{sfn|Tappin|2003|pp=1944, 1946–1947}} Under the [[Lodi dynasty]] there was a large proliferation of tomb building, with octagonal plans reserved for royalty and square plans used for others of high rank, and the first double dome was introduced to India in this period.{{sfn|Tappin|2003|p=1948}} The first major [[Mughal architecture|Mughal building]] is the domed [[Humayun's Tomb|tomb of Humayun]], built between 1562 and 1571 by a Persian architect. The central double dome covers an octagonal central chamber about 15 meters wide and is accompanied by small domed [[Chhatri|chattri]] made of brick and faced with stone.{{sfn|Tappin|2003|pp=1944, 1948–1949}} [[Chhatri|Chatri]]s, the domed kiosks on pillars characteristic of Mughal roofs, were adopted from their Hindu use as [[cenotaph]]s.{{sfn|Peterson|1996|p=200}} The fusion of Persian and Indian architecture can be seen in the dome shape of the [[Taj Mahal]]: the bulbous shape derives from Persian Timurid domes, and the [[finial]] with lotus leaf base is derived from Hindu temples.{{sfn|Peterson|1996|p=68}} The [[Gol Gumbaz]], or ''Round Dome'', is one of the largest masonry domes in the world. It has an internal diameter of 41.15 meters and a height of 54.25 meters.{{sfn|Tappin|2003|pp=1949–1950}} The dome was the most technically advanced built in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]].{{sfn|Michell|Zebrowski|1987|p=15}} The last major Islamic tomb built in India was the [[Tomb of Safdarjung|tomb of Safdar Jang]] (1753–54). The central dome is reportedly triple-shelled, with two relatively flat inner brick domes and an outer bulbous marble dome, although it may actually be that the marble and second brick domes are joined everywhere but under the lotus leaf finial at the top.{{sfn|Tappin|2003|pp=1950–1951}}

=== Early modern period domes ===
{{Main|History of early modern period domes}}
[[File:St Paul's Cathedral Dome from One New Change - Square Crop.jpg|thumb|left|The dome of [[St Paul's Cathedral]] in London]]
In the early sixteenth century, the lantern of the Italian dome spread to Germany, gradually adopting the bulbous cupola from the Netherlands.{{sfn|Born|1944|pp=214–215}} Russian architecture strongly influenced the many bulbous domes of the wooden churches of [[Bohemia]] and [[Silesia]] and, in [[Bavaria]], bulbous domes less resemble Dutch models than Russian ones. Domes like these gained in popularity in central and southern Germany and in Austria in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, particularly in the [[Baroque architecture|Baroque style]], and influenced many bulbous cupolas in Poland and Eastern Europe in the Baroque period. However, many bulbous domes in eastern Europe were replaced over time in the larger cities during the second half of the eighteenth century in favor of hemispherical or stilted cupolas in the French or Italian styles.{{sfn|Born|1944|pp=218–220}}

The construction of domes in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries relied primarily on empirical techniques and oral traditions rather than the architectural treatises of the times, which avoided practical details. This was adequate for domes up to medium size, with diameters in the range of 12 to 20 meters. Materials were considered homogeneous and rigid, with compression taken into account and elasticity ignored. The weight of materials and the size of the dome were the key references. Lateral tensions in a dome were counteracted with horizontal rings of iron, stone, or wood incorporated into the structure.{{sfn|Fusco|Villanni|2003|pp=580–581}}

Over the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, developments in mathematics and the study of [[statics]] led to a more precise formalization of the ideas of the traditional constructive practices of arches and vaults, and there was a diffusion of studies on the most stable form for these structures: the [[catenary]] curve.{{sfn|Bagliani|2009}} [[Robert Hooke]], who first articulated that a [[catenary arch]] was comparable to an inverted hanging chain, may have advised Wren on how to achieve the crossing dome of [[St. Paul's Cathedral]]. Wren's structural system became the standard for large domes well into the 19th century.{{sfn|Mark|Billington|1989|pp=314–315}} The ribs in [[Guarino Guarini]]'s San Lorenzo and Il Sidone were shaped as [[catenary arch]]es.{{sfn|Nuttgens|1997|p=210}} The idea of a large oculus in a solid dome revealing a second dome originated with him.{{sfn|Wittkower|1999|p=48}} He also established the oval dome as a reconciliation of the longitudinal plan church favored by the liturgy of the Counter-Reformation and the centralized plan favored by idealists.{{sfn|Earls|1971|p=128}} Because of the imprecision of oval domes in the [[Rococo]] period, drums were problematic and the domes instead often rested directly on arches or pendentives.{{sfn|Earls|1971|pp=135–36}}

In the eighteenth century, the study of dome structures changed radically, with domes being considered as a composition of smaller elements, each subject to mathematical and mechanical laws and easier to analyse individually, rather than being considered as whole units unto themselves.{{sfn|Bagliani|2009}} Although never very popular in domestic settings, domes were used in a number of 18th century homes built in the [[Neoclassical architecture|Neo-Classical]] style.{{sfn|Palmer|2009|pp=92–93}} In the United States, most public buildings in the late 18th century were only distinguishable from private residences because they featured cupolas.{{sfn|Allen|2001|p=13}}

=== Modern period domes ===
{{Main|History of modern period domes}}
[[File:Eden Project geodesic domes panorama.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.8|[[Geodesic dome]]s of the [[Eden Project]] in United Kingdom]]
[[File:Aufriss und Mosaikflächen Dom des Heiligen Sava.jpg|thumb|250px|The concrete dome of [[Church of Saint Sava|Saint Sava]] was entirely built from prefabricated slabs. It was hydraulically lifted from the ground to 40 m height by lift-slab method. 1935–2004]]
The [[Historicism (art)|historicism]] of the 19th century led to many domes being re-translations of the great domes of the past, rather than further stylistic developments, especially in sacred architecture.{{sfn|Stephenson|Hammond|Davi|2005|p=190}} New production techniques allowed for [[cast iron]] and [[wrought iron]] to be produced both in larger quantities and at relatively low prices during the [[Industrial Revolution]]. Russia, which had large supplies of iron, has some of the earliest examples of iron's architectural use.{{sfn|Gayle|Gayle|1998|pp=13–14, 18, 26}} Excluding those that simply imitated multi-shell masonry, metal framed domes such as the elliptical dome of [[Royal Albert Hall]] in London (57 to 67 meters in diameter) and the circular dome of the [[Halle au Blé (Paris)|Halle au Blé]] in Paris may represent the century's chief development of the simple domed form.{{sfn|Mainstone|2001|p=241}} Cast-iron domes were particularly popular in France.{{sfn|Hourihane|2012|p=304}}

[[File:Mosque 201.jpg|thumb|The [[201 Dome Mosque]] in [[Gopalpur Upazila|Gopalpur]], [[Tangail District|Tangail]], [[Bangladesh]].]]

The practice of building rotating domes for [[Observatory|housing large telescopes]] was begun in the 19th century, with early examples using papier-mâché to minimize weight.{{sfn|Lippincott|2008|p=26}} Unique glass domes springing straight from ground level were used for [[Greenhouse|hothouses]] and [[winter garden]]s.{{sfn|Kohlmaier|Von Sartory|1991|pp=126–127}} Elaborate covered [[Arcade (architecture)|shopping arcades]] included large [[glazing (window)|glazed]] domes at their cross intersections.{{sfn|Coleman|2006|p=32}} The large domes of the 19th century included [[Convention center|exhibition buildings]] and functional structures such as [[Gas holder|gasometers]] and [[Motive power depot|locomotive sheds]].{{sfn|Kohlmaier|Von Sartory|1991|p=126}} The "first fully triangulated framed dome" was built in Berlin in 1863 by [[Johann Wilhelm Schwedler]] and, by the start of the 20th century, similarly triangulated frame domes had become fairly common.{{sfn|Mainstone|2001|p=171}}{{sfn|Dimčić|2011|p=8}} [[Vladimir Shukhov]] was also an early pioneer of what would later be called [[gridshell]] structures and in 1897 he employed them in domed exhibit pavilions at the All-Russia Industrial and Art Exhibition.{{sfn|Dimčić|2011|p=8}}

Domes built with steel and concrete were able to achieve very large spans.{{sfn|Hourihane|2012|p=304}} In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Guastavino family, a father and son team who worked on the eastern seaboard of the United States, further developed the masonry dome, using [[Guastavino tile|tiles]] set flat against the surface of the curve and fast-setting [[Portland cement]], which allowed mild steel bar to be used to counteract tension forces.{{sfn|Mainstone|2001|p=129}} The thin domical shell was further developed with the construction by [[Walther Bauersfeld]] of two [[planetarium]] domes in [[Jena]], Germany in the early 1920s. They consisting of a triangulated frame of light steel bars and mesh covered by a thin layer of concrete.{{sfn|Mainstone|2001|p=134}} These are generally taken to be the first modern architectural [[Thin-shell structure|thin shells]].{{sfn|Bradshaw|Campbell|Gargari|Mirmiran|2002|p=693}} These are also considered the first [[geodesic dome]]s.{{sfn|Langmead|Garnaut|2001|p=131}} Geodesic domes have been used for radar enclosures, greenhouses, housing, and weather stations.{{sfn|Langmead|Garnaut|2001|pp=131–132}} Architectural shells had their heyday in the 1950s and 1960s, peaking in popularity shortly before the widespread adoption of computers and the [[finite element method]] of [[structural analysis]].{{sfn|Bradshaw|Campbell|Gargari|Mirmiran|2002|pp=693–694, 697}}

The first permanent [[Air-supported structure|air supported]] membrane domes were the [[Radome|radar domes]] designed and built by Walter Bird after World War II. Their low cost eventually led to the development of permanent versions using teflon-coated fiberglass and by 1985 the majority of the domed stadiums around the world used this system.{{sfn|Bradshaw|Campbell|Gargari|Mirmiran|2002|pp=701–702}} [[Tensegrity]] domes, patented by Buckminster Fuller in 1962, are [[membrane structure]]s consisting of radial trusses made from steel cables under tension with vertical steel pipes spreading the cables into the truss form. They have been made circular, elliptical, and other shapes to cover stadiums from Korea to Florida.{{sfn|Levy|Salvadori|2002|pp=322–323}} Tension membrane design has depended upon computers, and the increasing availability of powerful computers resulted in many developments being made in the last three decades of the 20th century.{{sfn|Bradshaw|Campbell|Gargari|Mirmiran|2002|pp=700, 703}} The higher expense of rigid large span domes made them relatively rare, although rigidly moving panels is the most popular system for sports stadiums with [[retractable roof]]ing.{{sfn|Charlier}}{{sfn|Friedman|Farkas|2011|p=49}}