Editing Cotton (section)

==Cultivation==
[[File:Cottonfieldindia.jpg|thumb|Cotton field at Singalandapuram, Rasipuram, India (2017)]]
[[File:Cotton field, Ware County, GA, US.jpg|thumb|Cotton field]]
[[File:Cotton plant, Ware County, GA, US.jpg|right|thumb|Cotton plant with ''[[Ipomoea quamoclit]]'' vine]]
[[File:A Cotton Farm (South-West Punjab).jpg|thumb|A Cotton field, boll formation stage]]
[[File:Cotton field, late in season.jpg|thumb|A cotton field, late in the season]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 137-029895, Togo, Pflügen eines Baumwollfeldes.jpg|thumb|Cotton [[plowing]] in [[Togo]], 1928]]
[[File:Armenian cotton.jpg|thumb|Picking cotton in [[Armenia]] in the 1930s. No cotton is grown there today.]]
[[File:Cotton Ready for Shipment, Houston, Texas.jpg|thumb|Cotton ready for shipment, [[Houston, Texas]] (postcard, circa 1911)]]
[[File:Cotton modules.JPG|thumb|Cotton modules in Australia (2007)]]
[[File:Transport of cotton west of Walgett.JPG|thumb|Round cotton modules in Australia (2014)]]

Successful cultivation of cotton requires a long [[frost]]-free period, plenty of sunshine, and a moderate rainfall, usually from {{convert|50|to|100|cm|in|round=0.5|abbr=on}}.{{Cn|date=May 2024}} [[Soil]]s usually need to be fairly [[Soil morphology#Porosity|heavy]], although the level of [[nutrient]]s does not need to be exceptional. In general, these conditions are met within the seasonally dry tropics and subtropics in the Northern and Southern hemispheres, but a large proportion of the cotton grown today is cultivated in areas with less rainfall that obtain the water from irrigation. Production of the crop for a given year usually starts soon after harvesting the preceding autumn. Cotton is naturally a perennial but is grown as an annual to help control pests.<ref>[http://www.cottonspinning.com/grow/plantingcottonseeds.html "Planting Cotton Seeds"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227062910/http://www.cottonspinning.com/grow/plantingcottonseeds.html |date=27 February 2015 }}. ''cottonspinning.com''.</ref> Planting time in spring in the Northern hemisphere varies from the beginning of February to the beginning of June. The area of the United States known as the [[South Plains]] is the largest [[Geographic contiguity|contiguous]] cotton-growing region in the world. While [[Dryland farming|dryland]] (non-irrigated) cotton is successfully grown in this region, consistent yields are only produced with heavy reliance on [[irrigation]] water drawn from the [[Ogallala Aquifer]]. Since cotton is somewhat salt and drought tolerant, this makes it an attractive crop for arid and semiarid regions. As [[water resources]] get tighter around the world, economies that rely on it face difficulties and conflict, as well as potential environmental problems.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wegerich | first1 = K. | year = 2002 | title = Natural drought or human-made water scarcity in Uzbekistan? | url = http://www.preventionweb.net/english/professional/publications/v.php?id=1776 | journal = Central Asia and the Caucasus | volume = 2 | pages = 154–162 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121027155313/http://www.preventionweb.net/english/professional/publications/v.php?id=1776 | archive-date = 27 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Keepers of the Spring|year=2004|isbn=978-1-55963-681-0|author=Pearce, Fred|publisher=Island Press|pages=109–122|chapter=9 "A Salty Hell"}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2005.11.027| title = The water footprint of cotton consumption: An assessment of the impact of worldwide consumption of cotton products on the water resources in the cotton producing countries| journal = Ecological Economics| volume = 60| pages = 186–203| year = 2006| last1 = Chapagain| first1 = A. K.| last2 = Hoekstra| first2 = A. Y.| last3 = Savenije| first3 = H. H. G.| last4 = Gautam| first4 = R.| issue = 1| bibcode = 2006EcoEc..60..186C| s2cid = 154788067| url = https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/6843583/water_footprint_of_cotton_consumption.pdf| access-date = 18 August 2023| archive-date = 22 July 2023| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230722044332/https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/6843583/water_footprint_of_cotton_consumption.pdf| url-status = dead}}</ref><ref name="AF">{{cite book|title=The Arid Frontier|isbn=978-0-7923-4227-4|publisher=Springer|year=1998|first=Monique| last=Mainguet|author2=Létolle, René |chapter=Human-made Desertification in the Aral Sea Basin|pages=129–145}}</ref><ref name="GT">{{cite journal |last1=Waltham |first1=Tony |last2=Sholji |first2=Ihsan |title=The demise of the Aral Sea - an environmental disaster |journal=Geology Today |date=November 2001 |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=218–228 |doi=10.1046/j.0266-6979.2001.00319.x |bibcode=2001GeolT..17..218W |s2cid=129962159 }}</ref> For example, improper cropping and irrigation practices have led to [[desertification]] in areas of [[Uzbekistan]], where cotton is a major export. In the days of the [[Soviet Union]], the [[Aral Sea]] was tapped for agricultural irrigation, largely of cotton, and now [[salination]] is widespread.<ref name="AF" /><ref name="GT" />

Cotton can also be cultivated to have colors other than the yellowish off-white typical of modern commercial cotton fibers. [[Naturally colored cotton]] can come in red, green, and several shades of brown.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-981-10-8782-0_4 |chapter=Naturally Colored Organic Cotton and Naturally Colored Cotton Fiber Production |title=Organic Cotton |series=Textile Science and Clothing Technology |year=2019 |last1=Günaydin |first1=Gizem Karakan |last2=Avinc |first2=Ozan |last3=Palamutcu |first3=Sema |last4=Yavas |first4=Arzu |last5=Soydan |first5=Ali Serkan |pages=81–99 |isbn=978-981-10-8781-3 |s2cid=134541586 }}</ref>

=== Water footprint ===
The [[water footprint]] of cotton fibers is substantially larger than for most other plant fibers. Cotton is also known as a thirsty crop; on average, globally, cotton requires 8,000–10,000 liters of water for one kilogram of cotton, and in dry areas, it may require even more such as in some areas of India, it may need 22,500 liters.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-07-07|title=World Water Week|url=http://cottonconnect.org/world-water-week-2017/|access-date=2020-09-23|website=CottonConnect|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-03-20|title=World Water Day: the cost of cotton in water-challenged India|url=http://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2015/mar/20/cost-cotton-water-challenged-india-world-water-day|access-date=2020-09-23|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref>

=== Genetic modification ===
{{Main|Bt cotton}}
[[Genetic engineering|Genetically modified]] (GM) cotton was developed to reduce the heavy reliance on pesticides. The bacterium ''[[Bacillus thuringiensis]]'' (Bt) naturally produces a chemical harmful only to a small fraction of insects, most notably the larvae of [[Lepidoptera|moths and butterflies]], [[Coleoptera|beetles]], and [[Diptera|flies]], and harmless to other forms of life.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Are Bt crops safe?|journal = Nature Biotechnology|date = 2003-01-01|volume = 21|issue = 9|doi = 10.1038/nbt0903-1003|first1 = Mike|last1 = Mendelsohn|first2 = John|last2 = Kough|first3 = Zigfridais|last3 = Vaituzis|first4 = Keith|last4 = Matthews|pmid=12949561|pages=1003–9|s2cid = 16392889|url = https://zenodo.org/record/1233343}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hellmich |first1=Richard L. |last2=Siegfried |first2=Blair D. |last3=Sears |first3=Mark K. |last4=Stanley-Horn |first4=Diane E. |last5=Daniels |first5=Michael J. |last6=Mattila |first6=Heather R. |last7=Spencer |first7=Terrence |last8=Bidne |first8=Keith G. |last9=Lewis |first9=Leslie C. |title=Monarch larvae sensitivity to Bacillus thuringiensis- purified proteins and pollen |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=9 October 2001 |volume=98 |issue=21 |pages=11925–11930 |doi=10.1073/pnas.211297698 |pmid=11559841 |pmc=59744 |bibcode=2001PNAS...9811925H |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rose |first1=Robyn |last2=Dively |first2=Galen P. |last3=Pettis |first3=Jeff |title=Effects of Bt corn pollen on honey bees: emphasis on protocol development |journal=Apidologie |date=July 2007 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=368–377 |doi=10.1051/apido:2007022 |s2cid=18256663 |url=https://www.apidologie.org/10.1051/apido:2007022/pdf }}</ref> The gene coding for Bt toxin has been inserted into cotton, causing cotton, called [[Bt cotton]], to produce this natural insecticide in its tissues. In many regions, the main pests in commercial cotton are [[lepidoptera]]n larvae, which are killed by the Bt protein in the transgenic cotton they eat. This eliminates the need to use large amounts of broad-spectrum insecticides to kill lepidopteran pests (some of which have developed [[pyrethroid]] resistance). This spares natural insect predators in the farm ecology and further contributes to noninsecticide pest management.

However, Bt cotton is ineffective against many cotton pests, such as [[plant bug]]s, [[Halyomorpha halys|stink bugs]], and [[aphid]]s; depending on circumstances it may still be desirable to use insecticides against these. A 2006 study done by Cornell researchers, the Center for Chinese Agricultural Policy and the Chinese Academy of Science on Bt cotton farming in China found that after seven years these secondary pests that were normally controlled by pesticide had increased, necessitating the use of pesticides at similar levels to non-Bt cotton and causing less profit for farmers because of the extra expense of GM seeds.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Cornell University|date=25 July 2006|title=Seven-year glitch: Cornell warns that Chinese GM cotton farmers are losing money due to 'secondary' pests|author=Lang, Susan|url=http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/July06/Bt.cotton.China.ssl.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012044920/http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/July06/Bt.cotton.China.ssl.html|archive-date=12 October 2012}}</ref> However, a 2009 study by the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Stanford University and Rutgers University refuted this.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Wang | first1 = Z. | last2 = Lin | first2 = H. | last3 = Huang | first3 = J. | last4 = Hu | first4 = R. | last5 = Rozelle | first5 = S. | last6 = Pray | first6 = C. | doi = 10.1016/S1671-2927(09)60012-2 | title = Bt Cotton in China: Are Secondary Insect Infestations Offsetting the Benefits in Farmer Fields? | journal = Agricultural Sciences in China | volume = 8 | pages = 83–90 | year = 2009 }}</ref> They concluded that the GM cotton effectively controlled bollworm. The secondary pests were mostly miridae (plant bugs) whose increase was related to local temperature and rainfall and only continued to increase in half the villages studied. Moreover, the increase in insecticide use for the control of these secondary insects was far smaller than the reduction in total insecticide use due to Bt cotton adoption. A 2012 Chinese study concluded that Bt cotton halved the use of pesticides and doubled the level of ladybirds, lacewings and spiders.<ref name=20120613Guardian>Carrington, Damien (13 June 2012) [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/jun/13/gm-crops-environment-study?INTCMP=SRCH GM crops good for environment, study finds] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005002523/http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/jun/13/gm-crops-environment-study?INTCMP=SRCH |date=5 October 2013 }} The Guardian, Retrieved 16 June 2012</ref><ref>{{cite journal| last1 = Lu y | first1 = W. K.| last2 = Wu | first2 = K.| last3 = Jiang | first3 = Y.| last4 = Guo | first4 = Y.| last5 = Desneux | first5 = N.| title = Widespread adoption of Bt cotton and insecticide decrease promotes biocontrol services| journal = Nature| volume = 487| issue = 7407| pages = 362–365| date=July 2012 | pmid = 22722864| doi = 10.1038/nature11153|bibcode = 2012Natur.487..362L | s2cid = 4415298}}</ref> The [[International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications]] (ISAAA) said that, worldwide, GM cotton was planted on an area of 25 million hectares in 2011.<ref name = ISAAA/> This was 69% of the worldwide total area planted in cotton.

GM cotton acreage in India grew at a rapid rate, increasing from 50,000 hectares in 2002 to 10.6 million hectares in 2011. The total cotton area in India was 12.1 million hectares in 2011, so GM cotton was grown on 88% of the cotton area. This made India the country with the largest area of GM cotton in the world.<ref name=ISAAA>[http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/43/executivesummary/default.asp ISAAA Brief 43-2011: Executive Summary Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2011] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210025832/http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/43/executivesummary/default.asp |date=10 February 2012 }}. Retrieved 24 September 2012.</ref> A long-term study on the economic impacts of Bt cotton in India, published in the Journal [[PNAS]] in 2012, showed that Bt cotton has increased yields, profits, and living standards of [[smallholding|smallholder]] farmers.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1073/pnas.1203647109|title=Economic impacts and impact dynamics of Bt (''Bacillus thuringiensis'') cotton in India|year=2012|last1=Kathage|first1=J.|last2=Qaim|first2=M.|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=109|issue=29|pages=11652–6|pmid=22753493|pmc=3406847|bibcode=2012PNAS..10911652K|doi-access=free}}</ref> The U.S. GM cotton crop was 4.0 million hectares in 2011 the second largest area in the world, the Chinese GM cotton crop was third largest by area with 3.9 million hectares and Pakistan had the fourth largest GM cotton crop area of 2.6 million hectares in 2011.<ref name = ISAAA/> The initial introduction of GM cotton proved to be a success in Australia&nbsp;– the yields were equivalent to the non-transgenic varieties and the crop used much less pesticide to produce (85% reduction).<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120419154729/http://www.cottonaustralia.com.au/facts/factsandfigures.aspx?id=14 Facts & Figures/Natural Resource Management Issues], Biotechnology, 2010. cottonaustralia.com.au.</ref> The subsequent introduction of a second variety of GM cotton led to increases in GM cotton production until 95% of the Australian cotton crop was GM in 2009<ref name=GMOCompass>[http://www.gmo-compass.org/eng/agri_biotechnology/gmo_planting/343.genetically_modified_cotton_global_area_under_cultivation.html Genetically modified plants: Global Cultivation Area Cotton] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100729093637/http://www.gmo-compass.org/eng/agri_biotechnology/gmo_planting/343.genetically_modified_cotton_global_area_under_cultivation.html |date=29 July 2010 }} GMO Compass, 29 March 2010. Retrieved 7 August 2010.</ref> making Australia the country with the fifth largest GM cotton crop in the world.<ref name = ISAAA/> Other GM cotton growing countries in 2011 were Argentina, Myanmar, Burkina Faso, Brazil, Mexico, Colombia, South Africa and Costa Rica.<ref name = ISAAA/>

Cotton has been genetically modified for resistance to [[glyphosate]] a broad-spectrum herbicide discovered by Monsanto which also sells some of the Bt cotton seeds to farmers. There are also a number of other cotton seed companies selling GM cotton around the world. About 62% of the GM cotton grown from 1996 to 2011 was insect resistant, 24% [[Gene stacked event|stacked]] product and 14% herbicide resistant.<ref name = ISAAA/>

Cotton has [[gossypol]], a toxin that makes it inedible. However, scientists have silenced the gene that produces the toxin, making it a potential food crop.<ref>Bourzac, Katherine (21 November 2006) [http://www.technologyreview.com/Biotech/17812/ Edible Cotton]. ''MIT Technology Review''.</ref> On 17 October 2018, the [[USDA]] deregulated [[Genetic Engineering|GE]] low-gossypol cotton.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/biotechnology/brs-news-and-information/2018_brs_news/texas_am_low_gossypol_cotton |title=USDA Announces Deregulation of GE Low-Gossypol Cotton |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |format=website |access-date=21 October 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022033541/https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/biotechnology/brs-news-and-information/2018_brs_news/texas_am_low_gossypol_cotton |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aphis.usda.gov/brs/fedregister/BRS_20181017.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.aphis.usda.gov/brs/fedregister/BRS_20181017.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Federal Register: Texas A&M AgriLife Research; Determination of Nonregulated Status of Cotton Genetically Engineered for Ultra-low Gossypol Levels in the Cottonseed  |publisher=National Archives and Records Administration  |access-date=21 October 2018}}</ref>

===Organic production===
[[Organic cotton]] is generally understood as cotton from plants not [[Transgenic plant|genetically modified]] and that is certified to be grown without the use of any synthetic [[agrochemical|agricultural chemicals]], such as [[fertilizers]] or [[pesticides]].<ref>[http://www.vineyardteam.org/resources/sustainableag.php CCVT Sustainable] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090623021024/http://www.vineyardteam.org/resources/sustainableag.php |date=23 June 2009 }}. Vineyardteam.org. Retrieved on 27 November 2011.</ref> Its production also promotes and enhances biodiversity and biological cycles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vineyardteam.org/pdf/Econ04_ohmart.pdf |title=VineYardTeam Econ |access-date=9 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705092431/http://www.vineyardteam.org/pdf/Econ04_ohmart.pdf |archive-date=5 July 2008 }}</ref> In the United States, organic cotton plantations are required to enforce the [[National Organic Program]] (NOP). This institution determines the allowed practices for pest control, growing, fertilizing, and handling of organic crops.<ref>[http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/nop AMSv1] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406153842/http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/nop |date=6 April 2012 }}. Ams.usda.gov. Retrieved on 27 November 2011.</ref> As of 2007, 265,517 bales of organic cotton were produced in 24 countries, and worldwide production was growing at a rate of more than 50% per year.<ref name=OTA>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100214145702/http://www.ota.com/organic/mt/organic_cotton.html Organic Cotton Facts]. Organic Trade Association.</ref> Organic cotton products are now available for purchase at limited locations. These are popular for baby clothes and [[diapers]]; natural cotton products are known to be both sustainable and hypoallergenic.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

===Pests and weeds===
[[File:Greene Co Ga1941 Delano.jpg|thumb|Hoeing a cotton field to remove weeds, [[Greene County, Georgia]], US, 1941]]
[[File:Cotton Harlequin Bugs.jpg|thumb|Female and nymph [[cotton harlequin bug]]]]

The cotton industry relies heavily on chemicals, such as [[fertilizers]], [[insecticides]] and [[herbicide]]s, although a very small number of farmers are moving toward an [[Organic farming|organic]] model of production. Under most definitions, organic products do not use [[genetic engineering|transgenic]] ''[[Bacillus thuringiensis|Bt]]'' cotton which contains a [[bacteria]]l gene that codes for a plant-produced [[protein]] that is toxic to a number of pests especially the [[bollworm]]s. For most producers, ''Bt'' cotton has allowed a substantial reduction in the use of synthetic insecticides, although in the long term [[Pesticide resistance#B. thuringiensis|resistance]] may become problematic.

====Global pest problems====
{{Main|List of cotton diseases}}
Significant global pests of cotton include various species of [[bollworm]], such as ''[[Pectinophora gossypiella]]''. Sucking pests include [[Dysdercus|cotton stainers]], the chili thrips, ''[[Scirtothrips dorsalis]]''; the cotton seed bug, ''[[Oxycarenus hyalinipennis]]''. Defoliators include the fall armyworm, ''[[Spodoptera frugiperda]]''.

Cotton yield is threatened by the evolution [[pest evolution|of new biotypes of insects]] and [[crop pathogen evolution|of new pathogens]].<ref name="advances" /> Maintaining good yield requires strategies to slow these adversaries' evolution.<ref name="advances">{{cite book | publisher=[[Springer Nature Switzerland AG]] | last1=Al-Khayri | first1=Jameel M. | last2=Jain | first2=S. Mohan | last3=Johnson | first3=Dennis Victor | series=Advances in Plant Breeding Strategies | volume=6 | title=Industrial and Food Crops | publication-place=Cham | year=2019 | isbn=978-3-030-23265-8 | oclc=1124613891}}{{rp|page=32}}

{{cite journal | last1=Gutierrez | first1=Andrew Paul | last2=Ponti | first2=Luigi | last3=Herren | first3=Hans R | last4=Baumgärtner | first4=Johann | last5=Kenmore | first5=Peter E | title=Deconstructing Indian cotton: weather, yields, and suicides | journal=[[Environmental Sciences Europe]] | publisher=[[Springer Science and Business Media]] | volume=27 | issue=1 | year=2015 | issn=2190-4707 | doi=10.1186/s12302-015-0043-8 | s2cid=3935402| doi-access=free }}</ref>
[[File:Boll weevil.jpg|thumb|A [[boll weevil]] on a cotton boll]]

====North American insect pests====
Historically, in North America, one of the most economically destructive pests in cotton production has been the [[boll weevil]]. Boll weevils are beetles who ate cotton in the 1950s, that slowed the production of the cotton industry drastically. "This bone pile of short budgets, loss of market share, failing prices, abandoned farms, and the new immunity of boll weevils generated a feeling of helplessness"<ref>{{Cite web|title=King_Cotton_in_Modern_America_A_Cultural_Political..._----_(11._"The_Fabric_of_Our_Lives").pdf: ART 2100-01 (95293)|url=https://calstatela.instructure.com/courses/63089/files/7639185?verifier=zc6E9xjUYSqXiH0RfBQRFfmHBJMnLEyINsGXPPsC&wrap=1|access-date=2021-10-19|website=calstatela.instructure.com}}</ref> Boll Weevils first appeared in Beeville, Texas wiping out field after field of cotton in south Texas. This swarm of Boll Weevils swept through east Texas and spread to the eastern seaboard, leaving ruin and devastation in its path, causing many cotton farmers to go out of business.<ref name="auto"/>
 
Due to the [[US Department of Agriculture]]'s highly successful [[Boll Weevil Eradication Program]] (BWEP), this pest has been eliminated from cotton in most of the United States. This program, along with the introduction of genetically engineered [[Bacillus thuringiensis|Bt]] cotton, has improved the management of a number of pests such as [[cotton bollworm (American)|cotton bollworm]] and [[pink bollworm]]. Sucking pests include the cotton stainer, ''[[Dysdercus suturellus]]'' and the tarnish plant bug, ''[[Lygus lineolaris]]''. A significant cotton disease is caused by [[Xanthomonas citri subsp. malvacearum|''Xanthomonas citri'' subsp. ''malvacearum'']].