Editing Christianity and Judaism (section)

==Mutual views==

===Common Jewish views of Christianity===
{{Main|Judaism's view of Jesus}}
Many Jews view Jesus as one in a long list of failed [[List of messiah claimants|Jewish claimants to be the Messiah]], none of whom fulfilled the [[Jewish view of Jesus#Prophecy and Jesus|tests]] of a prophet specified in the Law of Moses. Others see Jesus as a teacher who worked with the gentiles and ascribe the messianic claims that Jews find objectionable to his later followers. Because much physical and spiritual violence was done to Jews in the name of Jesus and his followers,{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} and because [[evangelism]] is still an active aspect of many churches' activities, many Jews are uncomfortable with discussing Jesus and treat him as a [[Yeshu|non-person]]. In answering the question "What do Jews think of Jesus", philosopher Milton Steinberg claims, for Jews, Jesus cannot be accepted as anything more than a teacher. "In only a few respects did Jesus deviate from the Tradition," Steinberg concludes, "and in all of them, Jews believe, he blundered."<ref>M. Steinberg, 1975 ''Basic Judaism'' p. 108, New York: Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich</ref>

Judaism does not believe that God requires the sacrifice of any human. This is emphasized in Jewish traditions concerning the story of the [[Binding of Isaac|Akedah]], the binding of Isaac. In the Jewish explanation, this is a story in the Torah whereby God wanted to test Abraham's faith and willingness, and Isaac was never going to be actually sacrificed. Thus, Judaism rejects the notion that anyone can or should die for anyone else's sin.<ref>Spiegel, 1993</ref> Judaism is more focused on the practicalities of understanding how one may live a sacred life in the world according to God's will, rather than a hope of a future one. Judaism does not believe in the Christian concept of hell but does have a punishment stage in the afterlife (i.e. Gehenna, a term that also appears in the New Testament and translated as hell) as well as a Heaven ([[Olam Haba|Gan Eden]]), but the religion does not intend it as a focus.

Judaism views the worship of Jesus as inherently polytheistic, and rejects the Christian attempts to explain the [[Trinity]] as a complex monotheism.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/trinity/judaic-islamic-trinity.html|title=Trinity > Judaic and Islamic Objections (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)|website=plato.stanford.edu|access-date=27 January 2020}}</ref> Christian festivals have no religious significance in Judaism and are not celebrated, but some secular Jews in the West treat Christmas as a secular holiday.

===Common Christian views of Judaism===
Christians believe that Christianity is the fulfillment and successor of Judaism, retaining much of its doctrine and many of its practices including [[monotheism]], the belief in a Messiah, and certain forms of worship like prayer and reading from religious texts. Christians believe that Judaism requires blood sacrifice to atone for sins, and believe that Judaism has abandoned this since the [[destruction of the Second Temple]]. Most Christians consider the Mosaic Law to have been a necessary intermediate stage, but that once the [[crucifixion of Jesus]] occurred, adherence to civil and ceremonial Law was superseded by the New Covenant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Hebrews+7:11-28;&version=31;|title=Bible Gateway passage: Hebrews 7:11–28 – New International Version|website=Bible Gateway}}</ref>

Some Christians{{who|date= November 2018}} adhere to [[New Covenant theology]], which states that with the arrival of his New Covenant, Jews have ceased being blessed under his [[Mosaic covenant]]. This position has been softened or disputed by other Christians{{who|date= November 2018}}, where Jews are recognized to have a special status under the [[Abrahamic covenant]]. New Covenant theology is thus in contrast to [[Dual-covenant theology]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Pettigrew|first=LD|title=THE NEW COVENANT AND NEW COVENANT THEOLOGY|url=https://www.tms.edu/m/tmsj18h.pdf|url-status=dead|access-date=24 July 2021|website=The Master's Seminary|archive-date=2 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302044603/http://www.tms.edu/m/tmsj18h.pdf}}</ref>

Some Christians{{who|date= November 2018}} who view the Jewish people as close to God seek to understand and incorporate elements of Jewish understanding or perspective into their beliefs as a means to [[Philo-Semitism|respect]] their "parent" religion of Judaism, or to more fully seek out and return to their Christian roots. Christians embracing aspects of Judaism are sometimes criticized as Biblical [[Judaizers]] by Christians when they pressure gentile Christians to observe Mosaic teachings rejected by most modern Christians.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.tabletmag.com/jewish-life-and-religion/161086/observing-torah-like-jesus | title=FOR SOME BELIEVERS TRYING TO CONNECT WITH JESUS, THE ANSWER IS TO LIVE LIKE A JEW | work=Tablet | date=4 February 2014 | access-date=27 July 2019}}</ref>

[[Commonwealth Theology]] (CT) asserts that Judeo-Christian tensions were exacerbated in the fall of Jerusalem and by the subsequent Jewish Revolt.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Krieger|first=Douglas W.|title=Commonwealth Theology Essentials|publisher=Commonwealth of Israel Foundation|year=2020|isbn=979-8-65-292851-3|location=Phoenix|pages=131}}</ref> As a result, early Christian theologies formulated in the Roman capitals of Rome and Constantinople began to include antisemitic attitudes, which have been carried forward and embraced by the Protestant Reformers. [[Dispensationalism|Dispensation Theology]], formalized in the 1830s by [[John Nelson Darby|John Darby]], holds that "God has not rejected His people whom He foreknew."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://biblehub.com/romans/11-2.htm|title=Romans 11:2 God did not reject His people, whom He foreknew. Do you not know what the Scripture says about Elijah, how he appealed to God against Israel|website=biblehub.com}}</ref> Dispensationalism, however, maintains that God's special dealings with Israel have been interrupted by the [[Church Age]]. Commonwealth Theology, on the other hand, recognizes the continuity of God's "congregation in the wilderness"<ref>Acts 7:38</ref> as presently consisting of the Jews (house of Judah) and the Nations (Gentiles), among whom are abiding the historically scattered Northern Kingdom (house of Israel). Commonwealth Theology views the Jews as already included in [[Commonwealth of Israel]]<ref>Eph. 2:12</ref> even while in unbelief, but nevertheless unsaved in their unbelieving state.<ref name=":0" /> CT recognizes that both the reconciliation of the Jewish house and the reconciliation of the estranged house of Israel (among the Gentiles) was accomplished by the cross; and that the salvation of "All Israel"<ref>Rom. 11:26</ref> is a process that began on the Day of Pentecost. The full realization of the "one new man" created through the peace (between the Jews and "you Gentiles") made by his cross<ref>Eph. 2:15</ref> will take place in Ezekiel's two sticks made one, when both houses of Israel will be united under the Kingdom of David.<ref>see Ezekiel Ch. 37</ref>

=== Messianic Judaism ===
{{Main|Messianic Judaism}}

=== Jewish Christians ===
{{Main|Jewish Christian}}
{{unreferenced section|date=July 2020}}
Some scholars have found evidence of continuous interactions between Jewish-Christian and rabbinic movements from the mid- to late second century CE to the fourth century CE. Of particular importance is the figure of [[James, brother of Jesus|James the brother of Jesus]], the leader of the Christian Church in Jerusalem until he was killed in the year 62, who was known for his righteous behavior as a Jew, and set the terms of the relationship between Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians in dialogue with Paul. To him is attributed a letter which emphasizes the view that faith must be expressed in works. The neglect of this mediating figure has often damaged Christian-Jewish relations. Modern scholarship is engaged in an ongoing debate over which term should be used as the proper designation for Jesus' first followers. Many scholars believe that the term Jewish Christians is anachronistic given the fact that there is no consensus on the date of the birth of Christianity. The very concepts of Christianity and Judaism can be seen as essentializing, since these are changing and plural traditions. Clearly, the first Christians would not have believed that they were exchanging one religion for another, because they believed that the [[resurrection of Jesus]] was the fulfillment of [[Messiah in Judaism|Jewish prophecies]], and they believed that the mission to the gentiles which was initiated by Saul (Paul of Tarsus) was a secondary activity.  Some modern scholars have suggested that the designations "Jewish believers in Jesus" and "Jewish followers of Jesus" better reflect the original context.