Editing Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (section)

==Comorbidities==

===Psychiatric comorbidities===
In children, ADHD occurs with other disorders about two-thirds of the time.<ref name="Walitza_2012" />

Other neurodevelopmental conditions are common comorbidities. [[Autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD), co-occurring at a rate of 21% in those with ADHD, affects social skills, ability to communicate, behaviour, and interests.<ref name="Young_2020">{{cite journal |vauthors=Young S, Hollingdale J, Absoud M, Bolton P, Branney P, Colley W, Craze E, Dave M, Deeley Q, Farrag E, Gudjonsson G, Hill P, Liang HL, Murphy C, Mackintosh P, Murin M, O'Regan F, Ougrin D, Rios P, Stover N, Taylor E, Woodhouse E |date=May 2020 |title=Guidance for identification and treatment of individuals with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder based upon expert consensus |journal=[[BMC Medicine]] |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |volume=18 |issue=1 |page=146 |doi=10.1186/s12916-020-01585-y |pmc=7247165 |pmid=32448170 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="NHS2018">{{cite web |date=20 October 2017 |title=Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Symptoms |url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd/symptoms/#related-conditions-in-children-and-teenagers |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516015304/https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd/symptoms/#related-conditions-in-children-and-teenagers |archive-date=16 May 2018 |access-date=15 May 2018 |website=[[NHS]]}}</ref> [[Learning disabilities]] have been found to occur in about&nbsp;20–30% of children with ADHD. Learning disabilities can include developmental speech and language disorders, and academic skills disorders.<ref name="BaileyHC">{{cite web |vauthors=Bailey E |date=5 September 2007 |title=ADHD and Learning Disabilities: How can you help your child cope with ADHD and subsequent Learning Difficulties? There is a way. |url=http://www.healthcentral.com/adhd/education-159625-5.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203092339/http://www.healthcentral.com/adhd/education-159625-5.html |archive-date=3 December 2013 |access-date=15 November 2013 |publisher=Remedy Health Media, LLC.}}</ref> ADHD, however, is not considered a learning disability, but it very frequently causes academic difficulties.<ref name="BaileyHC" /> [[Intellectual disability|Intellectual disabilities]]<ref name="DSM5TR" />{{Rp|page=75|quote=Individuals with ADHD and those with ASD}} and [[Tourette syndrome]]<ref name="NHS2018" /> are also common.

ADHD is often comorbid with disruptive, impulse control, and conduct disorders. [[Oppositional defiant disorder]] (ODD) occurs in about 25% of children with an inattentive presentation and 50% of those with a combined presentation.<ref name="DSM5TR" />{{Rp|page=75|quote=Oppositional defiant disorder co-occurs with ADHD in approximately half of children with the combined presentation and about a quarter with the predominantly inattentive presentation.}} It is characterised by angry or irritable mood, argumentative or defiant behaviour and vindictiveness which are age-inappropriate. [[Conduct disorder]] (CD) is another common comorbid disorder of adolescents with ADHD, and occurs in 25% of individuals with combined presentation.<ref name="DSM5TR" />{{Rp|page=75|quote=Conduct disorder co-occurs in about a quarter of children or adolescents with the combined presentation}} It is characterised by aggression, destruction of property, deceitfulness, theft and violations of rules.<ref name="UTP2008">{{cite web |vauthors=Krull KR |date=5 December 2007 |title=Evaluation and diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children |url=https://www.uptodate.com/contents/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-in-children-and-adolescents-clinical-features-and-diagnosis |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605040744/http://www.uptodate.com/online/content/topic.do?topicKey=behavior%2F8293#5 |archive-date=5 June 2009 |access-date=12 September 2008 |work=Uptodate |publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health}}</ref> Adolescents with ADHD who also have CD are more likely to develop [[antisocial personality disorder]] in adulthood.<ref name="pmid19428109">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hofvander B, Ossowski D, Lundström S, Anckarsäter H |year=2009 |title=Continuity of aggressive antisocial behavior from childhood to adulthood: The question of phenotype definition |url=https://lup.lub.lu.se/record/1412513 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal of Law and Psychiatry |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=224–234 |doi=10.1016/j.ijlp.2009.04.004 |pmid=19428109 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517212251/https://lup.lub.lu.se/search/publication/1412513 |archive-date=17 May 2022 |access-date=22 November 2021}}</ref> Brain imaging supports that CD and ADHD are separate conditions: conduct disorder was shown to reduce the size of one's [[Temporal lobe|temporal]] lobe and [[limbic system]], and increase the size of one's [[orbitofrontal cortex]], whereas ADHD was shown to reduce connections in the [[cerebellum]] and [[prefrontal cortex]] more broadly. Conduct disorder involves more impairment in motivation control than ADHD.<ref name="pmid21094938">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rubia K |date=June 2011 |title="Cool" inferior frontostriatal dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder versus "hot" ventromedial orbitofrontal-limbic dysfunction in conduct disorder: a review |journal=[[Biological Psychiatry (journal)|Biological Psychiatry]] |publisher=Elsevier BV/The Society of Biological Psychiatry |volume=69 |issue=12 |pages=e69–e87 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.09.023 |pmid=21094938 |s2cid=14987165}}</ref> [[Intermittent explosive disorder]] is characterised by sudden and disproportionate outbursts of anger and co-occurs in individuals with ADHD more frequently than in the general population.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Radwan |first1=Karam |last2=Coccaro |first2=Emil F. |date=2020-05-28 |title=Comorbidity of disruptive behavior disorders and intermittent explosive disorder |journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health |volume=14 |issue=1 |page=24 |doi=10.1186/s13034-020-00330-w |issn=1753-2000 |pmc=7257202 |pmid=32514306 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[Borderline personality disorder]] has also been noted to co-occur with ADHD,<ref name="PM">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ferrer M, Andión O, Matalí J, Valero S, Navarro JA, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Torrubia R, Casas M |date=December 2010 |title=Comorbid attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in borderline patients defines an impulsive subtype of borderline personality disorder |journal=[[Journal of Personality Disorders]] |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=812–822 |doi=10.1521/pedi.2010.24.6.812 |pmid=21158602}}{{primary source inline|date=May 2013}}</ref> though more recent research suggests this may be due to historical biases leading to misdiagnoses.<ref>{{bulleted list||{{cite journal |vauthors=Kuja-Halkola R, Lind Juto K, Skoglund C, Rück C, Mataix-Cols D, Pérez-Vigil A, Larsson J, Hellner C, Långström N, Petrovic P, Lichtenstein P, Larsson H |title=Do borderline personality disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder co-aggregate in families? A population-based study of 2 million Swedes |journal=[[Molecular Psychiatry]] |date=January 2021 |volume=26 |number=1 |pages=341–349 |doi=10.1038/s41380-018-0248-5 |pmid=30323291 |pmc=7815504}}|{{cite magazine |vauthors=Littman K |date=February 2021 |title=When Women Battle ADHD and Borderline Personality Disorder |magazine=[[Additude Magazine]] |url=https://www.additudemag.com/adhd-and-bpd-women-borderline-personality-disorder/}}|{{cite journal |vauthors=Ditrich I, Philipsen A, Matthies S |title=Borderline personality disorder (BPD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) revisited – a review-update on common grounds and subtle distinctions |journal=Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation |volume=8 |number=22 |date=2021 |page=22 |doi=10.1186/s40479-021-00162-w |doi-access=free |pmid=34229766 |pmc=8261991 |issn=2051-6673}}|{{cite journal |vauthors=Asherson P, Young AH, Eich-Höchli D, Moran P, Porsdal V, Deberdt W |date=2014 |title=Differential diagnosis, comorbidity, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in relation to bipolar disorder or borderline personality disorder in adults |journal=[[Current Medical Research and Opinion]] |volume=30 |number=8 |pages=1657–1672 |doi=10.1185/03007995.2014.915800 |pmid=24804976}}|{{cite journal |vauthors=Philipsen A |title=Differential diagnosis and comorbidity of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and borderline personality disorder (BPD) in adults |journal=[[European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience]] |volume=256 |number=Supplement 1 |pages=i42–i46 |date=2006 |doi=10.1007/s00406-006-1006-2 |pmid=16977551}}}}</ref> The current diagnostic assessment of either disorder is often complex, as both of them have overlapping symptoms, thus these assessments often follow a differential diagnosis (following the American Psychiatric Association Guidelines for diagnosis) to determine whether there's a co-occurrence of both disorders or not.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

Anxiety and mood disorders are frequent comorbidities. [[Anxiety disorder]]s have been found to occur more commonly in the ADHD population, as have [[mood disorder]]s (especially [[bipolar disorder]] and [[major depressive disorder]]). Boys diagnosed with the combined ADHD subtype are more likely to have a mood disorder.<ref name="Wilens_2010">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wilens TE, Spencer TJ |date=September 2010 |title=Understanding attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder from childhood to adulthood |journal=Postgraduate Medicine |volume=122 |issue=5 |pages=97–109 |doi=10.3810/pgm.2010.09.2206 |pmc=3724232 |pmid=20861593}}</ref> Adults and children with ADHD sometimes also have bipolar disorder, which requires careful assessment to accurately diagnose and treat both conditions.<ref name="pmid21717696">{{cite journal |vauthors=Baud P, Perroud N, Aubry JM |date=June 2011 |title=[Bipolar disorder and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults: differential diagnosis or comorbidity] |journal=[[Revue Médicale Suisse]] |language=fr |volume=7 |issue=297 |pages=1219–1222 |doi=10.53738/REVMED.2011.7.297.1219 |pmid=21717696}}</ref><ref name="Wilens_2011">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wilens TE, Morrison NR |date=July 2011 |title=The intersection of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and substance abuse |journal=Current Opinion in Psychiatry |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=280–285 |doi=10.1097/YCO.0b013e328345c956 |pmc=3435098 |pmid=21483267}}</ref>

[[Sleep disorders]] and ADHD commonly co-exist. They can also occur as a side effect of medications used to treat ADHD. In children with ADHD, [[insomnia]] is the most common sleep disorder with behavioural therapy being the preferred treatment.<ref name="pmid21600348">{{cite journal |vauthors=Corkum P, Davidson F, Macpherson M |date=June 2011 |title=A framework for the assessment and treatment of sleep problems in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder |journal=Pediatric Clinics of North America |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=667–683 |doi=10.1016/j.pcl.2011.03.004 |pmid=21600348}}</ref><ref name="pmid20451036">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tsai MH, Huang YS |date=May 2010 |title=Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and sleep disorders in children |journal=The Medical Clinics of North America |volume=94 |issue=3 |pages=615–632 |doi=10.1016/j.mcna.2010.03.008 |pmid=20451036}}</ref> Problems with sleep initiation are common among individuals with ADHD but often they will be deep sleepers and have significant difficulty getting up in the morning.<ref name="Brown_2008" /> [[Melatonin]] is sometimes used in children who have sleep onset insomnia.<ref name="pmid20028959">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bendz LM, Scates AC |date=January 2010 |title=Melatonin treatment for insomnia in pediatric patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder |journal=The Annals of Pharmacotherapy |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=185–191 |doi=10.1345/aph.1M365 |pmid=20028959 |s2cid=207263711}}</ref> [[Restless legs syndrome]] has been found to be more common in those with ADHD and is often due to [[iron deficiency anemia]].<ref name="pmid21365608">{{cite journal |vauthors=Merino-Andreu M |date=March 2011 |title=Trastorno por déficit de atención/hiperactividad y síndrome de piernas inquietas en niños |trans-title=Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and restless legs syndrome in children |journal=Revista de Neurologia |language=es |volume=52 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=S85–S95 |doi=10.33588/rn.52S01.2011037 |pmid=21365608}}</ref><ref name="pmid20620105">{{cite journal |vauthors=Picchietti MA, Picchietti DL |date=August 2010 |title=Advances in pediatric restless legs syndrome: Iron, genetics, diagnosis and treatment |journal=Sleep Medicine |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=643–651 |doi=10.1016/j.sleep.2009.11.014 |pmid=20620105}}</ref> However, restless legs can simply be a part of ADHD and requires careful assessment to differentiate between the two disorders.<ref name="pmid18656214">{{cite journal |vauthors=Karroum E, Konofal E, Arnulf I |year=2008 |title=[Restless-legs syndrome] |journal=Revue Neurologique |language=fr |volume=164 |issue=8–9 |pages=701–721 |doi=10.1016/j.neurol.2008.06.006 |pmid=18656214}}</ref> [[Delayed sleep phase disorder]] is also a common comorbidity.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Wajszilber D, Santiseban JA, Gruber R |date=December 2018 |title=Sleep disorders in patients with ADHD: impact and management challenges |journal=Nature and Science of Sleep |volume=10 |pages=453–480 |doi=10.2147/NSS.S163074 |pmc=6299464 |pmid=30588139 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Individuals with ADHD are at increased risk of [[substance use disorder]]s.<ref name="use" />{{rp|9|quote=Comorbid substance use disorder (SUD) deserves special attention due to the high rates of ADHD within SUD populations. A bidirectional link between ADHD and SUD is reported with ADHD symptoms over represented in SUD populations and SUD in ADHD populations.}} This is most commonly seen with [[Alcohol (drug)|alcohol]] or [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]].<ref name="Kooij_2010" />{{rp|9|quote=Alcohol and cannabis are the most frequently abused substances in these populations followed by lower rates of cocaine and amphetamine abuse.}} The reason for this may be an altered reward pathway in the brains of ADHD individuals, self-treatment and increased psychosocial risk factors.{{rp|9|quote=The causes for such comorbidity are likely to be complex including altered reward processing in ADHD, increased exposure to psychosocial risk factors and self treatment.}} This makes the evaluation and treatment of ADHD more difficult, with serious substance misuse problems usually treated first due to their greater risks.<ref name="NICE2009-part2" /> Other psychiatric conditions include [[reactive attachment disorder]],<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Storebø OJ, Rasmussen PD, Simonsen E |date=February 2016 |title=Association Between Insecure Attachment and ADHD: Environmental Mediating Factors |url=https://findresearcher.sdu.dk:8443/ws/files/134088245/Association_Between_Insecure_Attachment_and_ADHD.pdf |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Attention Disorders]] |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=187–196 |doi=10.1177/1087054713501079 |pmid=24062279 |s2cid=23564305 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209135025/https://findresearcher.sdu.dk:8443/ws/files/134088245/Association_Between_Insecure_Attachment_and_ADHD.pdf |archive-date=9 December 2021 |access-date=22 November 2021}}</ref> characterised by a severe inability to appropriately relate socially, and [[cognitive disengagement syndrome]], a distinct attention disorder occurring in 30–50% of ADHD cases as a comorbidity, regardless of the presentation; a subset of cases diagnosed with ADHD-PIP have been found to have CDS instead.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Becker SP, Willcutt EG, Leopold DR, Fredrick JW, Smith ZR, Jacobson LA, Burns GL, Mayes SD, Waschbusch DA, Froehlich TE, McBurnett K, Servera M, Barkley RA |date=June 2023 |title=Report of a Work Group on Sluggish Cognitive Tempo: Key Research Directions and a Consensus Change in Terminology to Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome |journal=[[Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry]] |volume=62 |issue=6 |pages=629–645 |doi=10.1016/j.jaac.2022.07.821 |pmc=9943858 |pmid=36007816}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author-link=Russell Barkley |vauthors=Barkley RA |date=January 2014 |title=Sluggish cognitive tempo (concentration deficit disorder?): current status, future directions, and a plea to change the name |url=https://psychology.uiowa.edu/sites/psychology.uiowa.edu/files/groups/nikolas/files/Barkley,%202014.pdf |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology]] |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=117–125 |doi=10.1007/s10802-013-9824-y |pmid=24234590 |s2cid=8287560 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809102631/https://psychology.uiowa.edu/sites/psychology.uiowa.edu/files/groups/nikolas/files/Barkley,%202014.pdf |archive-date=9 August 2017}}</ref> Individuals with ADHD are three times more likely to be diagnosed with an [[eating disorder]] compared to those without ADHD; conversely, individuals with eating disorders are two times more likely to have ADHD than those without eating disorders.<ref name="Nazar_2016">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nazar BP, Bernardes C, Peachey G, Sergeant J, Mattos P, Treasure J |date=December 2016 |title=The risk of eating disorders comorbid with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis |url=https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/the-risk-of-eating-disorders-comorbid-with-attentiondeficithyperactivity-disorder(9a8e868e-de6e-4e19-9561-f8a576836848).html |url-status=live |journal=The International Journal of Eating Disorders |volume=49 |issue=12 |pages=1045–1057 |doi=10.1002/eat.22643 |pmid=27859581 |s2cid=38002526 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208035350/https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/the-risk-of-eating-disorders-comorbid-with-attentiondeficithyperactivity-disorder(9a8e868e-de6e-4e19-9561-f8a576836848).html |archive-date=8 December 2022 |access-date=26 October 2022}}</ref>

===Trauma===
ADHD, [[Psychological trauma|trauma]], and [[adverse childhood experiences]] are also comorbid,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schneider M, VanOrmer J, Zlomke K |date=2019 |title=Adverse Childhood Experiences and Family Resilience Among Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder |journal=[[Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics]] |volume=40 |issue=8 |pages=573–580 |doi=10.1097/DBP.0000000000000703 |pmid=31335581 |s2cid=198193637}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Moon DS, Bong SJ, Kim BN, Kang NR |date=January 2021 |title=Association between Maternal Adverse Childhood Experiences and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in the Offspring: The Mediating Role of Antepartum Health Risks |journal=Soa--Ch'ongsonyon Chongsin Uihak = Journal of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=28–34 |doi=10.5765/jkacap.200041 |pmc=7788667 |pmid=33424239}}</ref> which could in part be potentially explained by the similarity in presentation between different diagnoses. The symptoms of ADHD and [[Post-traumatic stress disorder|PTSD]] can have significant behavioural overlap—in particular, motor restlessness, difficulty concentrating, distractibility, irritability/anger, emotional constriction or dysregulation, poor impulse control, and forgetfulness are common in both.<ref name="Ford_2009">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Ford JD, Connor DF |date=1 June 2009 |title=ADHD and post-traumatic stress disorder |journal=Current Attention Disorders Reports |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=60–66 |doi=10.1007/s12618-009-0009-0 |issn=1943-457X |s2cid=145508751}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Harrington KM, Miller MW, Wolf EJ, Reardon AF, Ryabchenko KA, Ofrat S |date=August 2012 |title=Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder comorbidity in a sample of veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder |journal=[[Comprehensive Psychiatry]] |volume=53 |issue=6 |pages=679–690 |doi=10.1016/j.comppsych.2011.12.001 |pmc=6519447 |pmid=22305866}}</ref> This could result in trauma-related disorders or ADHD being mis-identified as the other.<ref name="Szymanski_2011">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Szymanski K, Sapanski L, Conway F |date=1 January 2011 |title=Trauma and ADHD&nbsp;– Association or Diagnostic Confusion? A Clinical Perspective |journal=Journal of Infant, Child, and Adolescent Psychotherapy |location=Philadelphia PA |publisher=Taylor & Francis Group |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=51–59 |doi=10.1080/15289168.2011.575704 |issn=1528-9168 |eissn=1940-9214 |s2cid=144348893}}</ref> Additionally, traumatic events in childhood are a risk factor for ADHD;<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhang N, Gao M, Yu J, Zhang Q, Wang W, Zhou C, Liu L, Sun T, Liao X, Wang J |date=October 2022 |title=Understanding the association between adverse childhood experiences and subsequent attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies |journal=Brain and Behavior |volume=12 |issue=10 |pages=e32748 |doi=10.1002/brb3.2748 |pmc=9575611 |pmid=36068993}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Nguyen MN, Watanabe-Galloway S, Hill JL, Siahpush M, Tibbits MK, Wichman C |date=June 2019 |title=Ecological model of school engagement and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in school-aged children |journal=[[European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry]] |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=795–805 |doi=10.1007/s00787-018-1248-3 |pmid=30390147 |s2cid=53263217}}</ref> they can lead to structural brain changes and the development of ADHD behaviours.<ref name="Szymanski_2011" /> Finally, the behavioural consequences of ADHD symptoms cause a higher chance of the individual experiencing trauma (and therefore ADHD leads to a concrete diagnosis of a trauma-related disorder).<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Miodus S, Allwood MA, Amoh N |date=5 January 2021 |title=Childhood ADHD Symptoms in Relation to Trauma Exposure and PTSD Symptoms Among College Students: Attending to and Accommodating Trauma |journal=[[Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders]] |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=187–196 |doi=10.1177/1063426620982624 |issn=1063-4266 |s2cid=234159064}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Is It ADHD or Trauma? |url=https://childmind.org/article/is-it-adhd-or-trauma/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240418002257/https://childmind.org/article/is-it-adhd-or-trauma/ |archive-date=18 April 2024 |access-date=18 April 2024 |website=Child Mind Institute}}</ref>

===Non-psychiatric===
{{see also|Accident-proneness#Hypophobia}}

Some non-psychiatric conditions are also comorbidities of ADHD. This includes [[epilepsy]],<ref name="NHS2018" /> a neurological condition characterised by recurrent seizures.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Williams AE, Giust JM, Kronenberger WG, Dunn DW |date=2016 |title=Epilepsy and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: links, risks, and challenges |journal=[[Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment]] |volume=12 |pages=287–296 |doi=10.2147/NDT.S81549 |pmc=4755462 |pmid=26929624 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Silva RR, Munoz DM, Alpert M |date=March 1996 |title=Carbamazepine use in children and adolescents with features of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analysis |journal=[[Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry]] |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=352–358 |doi=10.1097/00004583-199603000-00017 |pmid=8714324 |doi-access=free}}</ref> There are well established associations between ADHD and obesity, [[asthma]] and sleep disorders,<ref name="pmid27664125">{{cite journal |vauthors=Instanes JT, Klungsøyr K, Halmøy A, Fasmer OB, Haavik J |date=February 2018 |title=Adult ADHD and Comorbid Somatic Disease: A Systematic Literature Review |journal=[[Journal of Attention Disorders]] |type=Systematic Review |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=203–228 |doi=10.1177/1087054716669589 |pmc=5987989 |pmid=27664125}}</ref> and an association with celiac disease.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Gaur S |date=May 2022 |title=The Association between ADHD and Celiac Disease in Children |journal=Children |publisher=[[MDPI]] |volume=9 |issue=6 |page=781 |doi=10.3390/children9060781 |pmc=9221618 |pmid=35740718 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Children with ADHD have a higher risk for [[migraine]] headaches,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hsu TW, Chen MH, Chu CS, Tsai SJ, Bai YM, Su TP, Chen TJ, Liang CS |date=May 2022 |title=Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and risk of migraine: A nationwide longitudinal study |journal=Headache |volume=62 |issue=5 |pages=634–641 |doi=10.1111/head.14306 |pmid=35524451 |s2cid=248553863}}</ref> but have no increased risk of tension-type headaches. Children with ADHD may also experience headaches as a result of medication.<ref name="Salem_2017">{{cite journal |vauthors=Salem H, Vivas D, Cao F, Kazimi IF, Teixeira AL, Zeni CP |date=March 2018 |title=ADHD is associated with migraine: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=[[European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry]] |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=267–277 |doi=10.1007/s00787-017-1045-4 |pmid=28905127 |s2cid=3949012}}</ref><ref name="Pan_2021">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pan PY, Jonsson U, Şahpazoğlu Çakmak SS, Häge A, Hohmann S, Nobel Norrman H, Buitelaar JK, Banaschewski T, Cortese S, Coghill D, Bölte S |date=January 2022 |title=Headache in ADHD as comorbidity and a side effect of medications: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Psychological Medicine |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=14–25 |doi=10.1017/s0033291721004141 |pmc=8711104 |pmid=34635194 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

A 2021 review reported that several neurometabolic disorders caused by [[inborn errors of metabolism]] converge on common neurochemical mechanisms that interfere with biological mechanisms also considered central in ADHD pathophysiology and treatment. This highlights the importance of close collaboration between health services to avoid clinical overshadowing.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Cannon Homaei S, Barone H, Kleppe R, Betari N, Reif A, Haavik J |date=January 2022 |title=ADHD symptoms in neurometabolic diseases: Underlying mechanisms and clinical implications |journal=[[Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews]] |volume=132 |pages=838–856 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.11.012 |pmid=34774900 |s2cid=243983688 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

In June 2021, ''[[Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews]]'' published a [[systematic review]] of 82 studies that all confirmed or implied elevated accident-proneness in ADHD patients, and whose data suggested that the type of accidents or injuries -- and overall risk -- changes over the lifespan of ADHD patients.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Brunkhorst-Kanaan N, Libutzki B, Reif A, Larsson H, McNeill RV, Kittel-Schneider S |date=June 2021 |title=ADHD and accidents over the life span - A systematic review |journal=[[Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews]] |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |volume=125 |pages=582–591 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.02.002 |pmid=33582234 |s2cid=231885131 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In January 2014, ''[[Accident Analysis & Prevention]]'' published a [[meta-analysis]] of 16 studies examining the relative risk of [[traffic collision]]s for drivers with ADHD, finding an overall relative risk estimate of 1.36 without controlling for exposure, a relative risk estimate of 1.29 when controlling for [[publication bias]], a relative risk estimate of 1.23 when controlling for exposure, and a relative risk estimate of 1.86 for ADHD drivers with [[oppositional defiant disorder]] or [[conduct disorder]] [[Comorbidity|comorbidities]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vaa T |date=January 2014 |title=ADHD and relative risk of accidents in road traffic: a meta-analysis |journal=[[Accident Analysis & Prevention]] |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |volume=62 |pages=415–425 |doi=10.1016/j.aap.2013.10.003 |pmid=24238842 |hdl-access=free |hdl=11250/2603537}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 June 2018 |title=Overview: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) |url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217091056/https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd/ |archive-date=17 February 2024 |access-date=16 February 2024 |website=[[NHS]]}}</ref>

===Problematic digital media use===
{{See also|Screen time|Internet addiction disorder|Problematic smartphone use|Problematic social media use|Video game addiction}}
{{Excerpt|Digital media use and mental health|ADHD}}

===Suicide risk===
Systematic reviews in 2017 and 2020 found strong evidence that ADHD is associated with increased [[suicide]] risk across all age groups, as well as growing evidence that an ADHD diagnosis in childhood or adolescence represents a significant future suicidal risk factor.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Balazs J, Kereszteny A |date=March 2017 |title=Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and suicide: A systematic review |journal=World Journal of Psychiatry |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=44–59 |doi=10.5498/wjp.v7.i1.44 |pmc=5371172 |pmid=28401048 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Garas_2020">{{cite journal |vauthors=Garas P, Balazs J |date=21 December 2020 |title=Long-Term Suicide Risk of Children and Adolescents With Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder-A Systematic Review |journal=[[Frontiers in Psychiatry]] |volume=11 |page=557909 |doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2020.557909 |pmc=7779592 |pmid=33408650 |id=557909 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Potential causes include ADHD's association with functional impairment, negative social, educational and occupational outcomes, and financial distress.<ref name="Septier_2019">{{cite journal |vauthors=Septier M, Stordeur C, Zhang J, Delorme R, Cortese S |date=August 2019 |title=Association between suicidal spectrum behaviors and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis |url=https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/431399/1/Septier_et_al_ADHD_SUICIDE_R2_CLEANED.docx |url-status=live |journal=[[Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews]] |volume=103 |pages=109–118 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.05.022 |pmid=31129238 |s2cid=162184004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104140233/https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/431399/1/Septier_et_al_ADHD_SUICIDE_R2_CLEANED.docx |archive-date=4 November 2021 |access-date=7 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Beauchaine TP, Ben-David I, Bos M |date=September 2020 |title=ADHD, financial distress, and suicide in adulthood: A population study |journal=[[Science Advances]] |volume=6 |issue=40 |pages=eaba1551 |bibcode=2020SciA....6.1551B |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aba1551 |pmc=7527218 |pmid=32998893 |id=eaba1551}}</ref> A 2019 meta-analysis indicated a significant association between ADHD and suicidal spectrum behaviours (suicidal attempts, ideations, plans, and completed suicides); across the studies examined, the prevalence of suicide attempts in individuals with ADHD was 18.9%, compared to 9.3% in individuals without ADHD, and the findings were substantially replicated among studies which adjusted for other variables. However, the relationship between ADHD and suicidal spectrum behaviours remains unclear due to mixed findings across individual studies and the complicating impact of comorbid psychiatric disorders.<ref name="Septier_2019" /> There is no clear data on whether there is a direct relationship between ADHD and suicidality, or whether ADHD increases suicide risk through comorbidities.<ref name="Garas_2020" />

===Rejection sensitive dysphoria===
Rejection sensitive dysphoria, while not a formal diagnosis, is also a common symptom of ADHD, estimated to affect a majority of people with ADHD.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bedrossian |first=Louise |date=2021-04-18 |title=Understand and address complexities of rejection sensitive dysphoria in students with ADHD |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/dhe.31047 |journal=Disability Compliance for Higher Education |language=en |volume=26 |issue=10 |page=4 |doi=10.1002/dhe.31047 |issn=1086-1335 |s2cid=234849318}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |vauthors=Dodson W |date=28 February 2020 |title=How ADHD Ignites RSD: Meaning & Medication Solutions |magazine=[[Additude Magazine]] |url=https://www.additudemag.com/rejection-sensitive-dysphoria-and-adhd/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ginapp |first1=Callie M. |last2=Greenberg |first2=Norman R. |last3=MacDonald-Gagnon |first3=Grace |last4=Angarita |first4=Gustavo A. |last5=Bold |first5=Krysten W. |last6=Potenza |first6=Marc N. |date=2023-10-12 |title='Dysregulated not deficit': A qualitative study on symptomatology of ADHD in young adults |journal=[[PLOS ONE]] |language=en |volume=18 |issue=10 |pages=e0292721 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0292721 |pmc=10569543 |pmid=37824501 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Others posit that rejection sensitivity stems from early [[Attachment in children|attachment relationships]] and parental rejection;<ref name="Butler">{{cite journal |last1=Butler |first1=J. C. |last2=Doherty |first2=M. S. |last3=Potter |first3=R. M. |year=2007 |title=Social antecedents and consequences of interpersonal rejection sensitivity |url=http://www.smsu.edu/facultystaff/jamesbutler/rejectsensitivity.pdf |journal=[[Personality and Individual Differences]] |volume=43 |issue=6 |pages=1376–1385 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2007.04.006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140602200751/http://www.smsu.edu/facultystaff/jamesbutler/rejectsensitivity.pdf |archive-date=2 June 2014}}</ref> peer rejection is also thought to play a role.<ref name="Butler" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=London |first1=B. |last2=Downey |first2=G. |last3=Bonica |first3=C. |last4=Paltin |first4=I. |year=2007 |title=Social causes and consequences of rejection sensitivity |journal=[[Journal of Research on Adolescence]] |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=481–506 |doi=10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00531.x}}</ref> Bullying, an extreme form of peer rejection, is likely connected to later rejection sensitivity.<ref name="Butler" /> However, there is no conclusive evidence for any of these theories.<ref name="Butler" />