Editing Altruism (section)

=== Possible explanations ===
Evolutionary theories such as the kin-selection, reciprocity, vested interest and punishment either contradict or do not fully explain the concept of extreme altruism.<ref name=":7">{{cite book |doi=10.4324/9781315690100 |title=Handbook of Heroism and Heroic Leadership |date=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-42611-0 |url=https://eprints.kingston.ac.uk/id/eprint/48727/6/Rotella-A-48727-AAM.pdf |editor-last1=Allison |editor-last2=Goethals |editor-last3=Kramer |editor-first1=Scott T. |editor-first2=George R. |editor-first3=Roderick M. |chapter= Why Heroism Exists: Evolutionary Perspectives on Extreme Helping |first1=Sara |last1=Kafashan |first2=Adam |last2=Sparks |first3=Amanda |last3=Rotella |first4=Pat |last4=Barclay |pages=36–57 }}</ref> As a result, considerable research has attempted for a separate explanation for this behaviour.

* Costly Signalling Theory for Extreme Behaviours

Research suggests that males are more likely to engage in heroic and risk-taking behaviours due to a preference among females for such traits.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kelly |first1=Susan |last2=Dunbar |first2=R. I. M. |title=Who dares, wins: Heroism versus altruism in women's mate choice |journal=Human Nature |date=June 2001 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=89–105 |doi=10.1007/s12110-001-1018-6 |pmid=26192164 }}</ref> These extreme altruistic behaviours could serve to act as an unconscious "signal" to showcase superior power and ability compared to ordinary individuals.<ref name=":7" /> When an extreme altruist survives a high-risk situation, they send an "honest signal" of quality.<ref name=":7" /> Three qualities hypothesized to be exhibited by extreme altruists, which could be interpreted as "signals", are: (1) traits that are difficult to fake, (2) a willingness to help, and (3) generous behaviours.<ref name=":7" />

* Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

The empathy altruism hypothesis appears to align with the concept of extreme altruism without contradiction. The hypothesis was supported with further brain scanning research, which indicates how this group of people demonstrate a higher level of empathy concern. The level of empathy concern then triggers activation in specific brain regions, urging the individual to engage in heroic behaviours.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=FeldmanHall |first1=Oriel |last2=Dalgleish |first2=Tim |last3=Evans |first3=Davy |last4=Mobbs |first4=Dean |date=January 2015 |title=Empathic concern drives costly altruism |journal=NeuroImage|volume=105 |pages=347–356 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.10.043 |pmc=4275572 |pmid=25462694}}</ref>

* Mistakes and Outliers

While most altruistic behaviours offer some form of benefit, extreme altruism may sometimes result from a mistake where the victim does not reciprocate.<ref name=":7" /> Considering the impulsive characteristic of extreme altruists, some researchers suggest that these individuals have made a wrong judgement during the cost-benefit analysis.<ref name=":4" /> Furthermore, extreme altruism might be a rare variation of altruism where they lie towards to ends of a normal distribution.<ref name=":7" /> In the US, the annual prevalence rate per capita is less than 0.00005%, this shows the rarity of such behaviours.<ref name=":1" />