Editing Sucrose (section)

==Consumption==
{{Main|History of sugar}}
Refined sugar was a luxury before the 18th century. It became widely popular in the 18th century, then graduated to becoming a necessary food in the 19th century. This evolution of taste and demand for sugar as an essential food ingredient unleashed major economic and social changes.<ref name=mintz>{{cite book|title=Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History|author=Mintz, Sidney|isbn=978-0-14-009233-2|year=1986|publisher=Penguin|url=https://archive.org/details/sweetnesspowerpl00mint}}</ref> Eventually, table sugar became sufficiently cheap and common enough to influence standard cuisine and flavored drinks.

Sucrose forms a major element in [[confectionery]] and [[dessert]]s. Cooks use it for sweetening. It can also act as a [[Sugaring|food preservative]] when used in sufficient concentrations, and thus is an important ingredient in the production of [[fruit preserves]]. Sucrose is important to the structure of many foods, including biscuits and cookies, cakes and pies, candy, and ice cream and sorbets. It is a common ingredient in many processed and so-called "[[junk food]]s".

===Nutritional information===
{{nutritional value
| name = Sugars, granulated [sucrose]
| kJ = 1620
| protein = 0 g
| fat = 0 g
| carbs = 100 g
| calcium_mg =
| iron_mg = 0
| phosphorus_mg = 0
| potassium_mg = 2.0
| vitC_mg = 0
| thiamin_mg = 0
| riboflavin_mg = 0
| niacin_mg = 0
| selenium_ug = 0.6
| source_usda = 1
| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/169655/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
}}
Fully refined sugar is 99.9% sucrose, thus providing only carbohydrate as dietary [[nutrient]] and 390 [[kilocalories]] per 100 g serving (table).<ref name="nd">{{cite web|url=https://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/sweets/5592/2|title=Nutrition Facts for sugars, granulated [sucrose] per 100 g (USDA National Nutrient Database, SR-21)|publisher=Conde Nast|date=2014|access-date=6 March 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150307044435/https://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/sweets/5592/2|archive-date=7 March 2015}}</ref> There are no [[micronutrients]] of significance in fully refined sugar (table).<ref name=nd/>

===Metabolism of sucrose===
[[File:Sugar 2xmacro.jpg|thumb|left|Granulated sucrose]]
In humans and other mammals, sucrose is broken down into its constituent monosaccharides, glucose and fructose, by [[sucrase]] or [[isomaltase]] [[glycoside hydrolases]], which are located in the [[cell membrane|membrane]] of the [[microvilli]] lining the [[duodenum]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Gray GM|title= Intestinal digestion and maldigestion of dietary carbohydrate|journal=Annual Review of Medicine|year=1971|volume=22|pages=391–404|doi=10.1146/annurev.me.22.020171.002135|pmid=4944426}}</ref><ref>Kaneko J.J. (2008) [https://books.google.com/books?id=spsD4WQbL0QC&pg=PA46 "Carbohydrate metabolism and its diseases"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140922061138/https://books.google.com/books?id=spsD4WQbL0QC&pg=PA46 |date=2014-09-22 }}, p. 46 in Kaneko J.J., Harvey J.W., Bruss M.L. (eds.) ''Clinical Biochemistry of Domestic Animals,'' San Diego, CA: Academic Press, {{ISBN|012370491X}}.</ref> The resulting glucose and fructose molecules are then rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream. In [[bacteria]] and some animals, sucrose is digested by the enzyme [[invertase]]. Sucrose is an easily assimilated [[nutrient|macronutrient]] that provides a quick source of energy, provoking a rapid rise in [[blood glucose]] upon ingestion. Sucrose, as a pure carbohydrate, has an energy content of 3.94&nbsp;[[kilocalorie]]s per gram (or 17&nbsp;[[kilojoule]]s per gram).

If consumed excessively, sucrose may contribute to the development of [[metabolic syndrome]], including increased risk for [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|type 2 diabetes]], insulin resistance, weight gain and [[obesity]] in adults and children.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Sugar-sweetened beverages and risk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes: A meta-analysis |doi=10.2337/dc10-1079 |year=2010 |last1=Malik |first1=V. S. |last2=Popkin |first2=B. M. |last3=Bray |first3=G. A. |last4=Despres |first4=J.-P. |last5=Willett |first5=W. C. |last6=Hu |first6=F. B. |journal=Diabetes Care |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=2477–83 |pmid=20693348 |pmc=2963518}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Malik |first1=Vasanti S. |last2=Pan |first2=An |last3=Willett |first3=Walter C. |last4=Hu |first4=Frank B. |date=2013-10-01 |title=Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis |url=https://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/98/4/1084.full |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |language=en |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=1084–1102 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.113.058362 |issn=0002-9165 |pmc=3778861 |pmid=23966427 |access-date=2018-12-21 |archive-date=2018-01-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109162407/https://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/98/4/1084.full |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Tooth decay ====
[[Dental caries|Tooth decay]] (dental caries) has become a pronounced health hazard associated with the consumption of sugars, especially sucrose. Oral bacteria such as ''[[Streptococcus mutans]]'' live in [[dental plaque]] and metabolize ''any'' free sugars (not just sucrose, but also glucose, [[lactose]], fructose, and cooked [[starch]]es)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.animated-teeth.com/tooth_decay/t2_tooth_decay_caries.htm |title=What causes tooth decay? |publisher=Animated-teeth.com |access-date=2010-05-05 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100209031710/https://www.animated-teeth.com/tooth_decay/t2_tooth_decay_caries.htm |archive-date=2010-02-09 }}</ref> into [[lactic acid]]. The resultant lactic acid lowers the pH of the tooth's surface, stripping it of minerals in the process known as tooth decay.<ref>[https://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/548toothdecay.html Tooth Decay] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025132424/https://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/548toothdecay.html |date=2014-10-25 }}. Elmhurst.edu. Retrieved on 2011-11-18.</ref><ref>[https://www.animated-teeth.com/tooth_decay/t2_tooth_decay_caries.htm What causes tooth decay?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100209031710/https://www.animated-teeth.com/tooth_decay/t2_tooth_decay_caries.htm |date=2010-02-09 }}. Animated-teeth.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-18.</ref>

All 6-carbon sugars and disaccharides based on 6-carbon sugars can be converted by dental plaque bacteria into acid that demineralizes teeth, but sucrose may be uniquely useful to ''[[Streptococcus sanguinis]]'' (formerly ''Streptococcus sanguis'') and ''Streptococcus mutans''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tanzer|first=JM|title=Essential dependence of smooth surface caries on, and augmentation of fissure caries by, sucrose and Streptococcus mutans infection|journal=Infection and Immunity|date=August 1979|volume=25|issue=2|pages=526–31|doi=10.1128/IAI.25.2.526-531.1979|pmid=489122|pmc=443577}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite thesis|last=Darlington|first=W.|title=Metabolism of sucrose by Stepococcus sanguis 804 (NCTC 10904) and its relevance to the oral environment|type=Ph.D Thesis|publisher= University of Glasgow |date=August 1979}}</ref> Sucrose is the only dietary sugar that can be converted to sticky glucans (dextran-like polysaccharides) by extracellular enzymes.<ref name=Sherris>{{cite book | veditors = Ryan KJ, Ray CG | title = Sherris Medical Microbiology | edition = 4th | publisher = McGraw Hill | year = 2004 | isbn= 978-0-8385-8529-0 }}</ref> These glucans allow the bacteria to adhere to the tooth surface and to build up thick layers of plaque. The anaerobic conditions deep in the plaque encourage the formation of acids, which leads to carious lesions. Thus, sucrose could enable ''S. mutans'', ''S. sanguinis'' and many other species of bacteria to adhere strongly and resist natural removal, e.g. by flow of saliva, although they are easily removed by brushing. The glucans and levans (fructose polysaccharides) produced by the plaque bacteria also act as a reserve food supply for the bacteria.
Such a special role of sucrose in the formation of tooth decay is much more significant in light of the almost universal use of sucrose as the most desirable sweetening agent. Widespread replacement of sucrose by high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) has not diminished the danger from sucrose. If smaller amounts of sucrose are present in the diet, they will still be sufficient for the development of thick, anaerobic plaque and plaque bacteria will metabolise other sugars in the diet,<ref name="ReferenceA"/> such as the glucose and fructose in HFCS.

====Glycemic index====
Sucrose is a disaccharide made up of 50% glucose and 50% fructose and has a [[glycemic index]] of 65.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wolever|first=Thomas M. S.|title=The Glycaemic Index: A Physiological Classification of Dietary Carbohydrate|publisher=CABI|year=2006|page=64|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_UkSoDwCN80C&pg=PA65|isbn=9781845930523|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216215845/https://books.google.com/books?id=_UkSoDwCN80C&pg=PA65|archive-date=2017-12-16}}</ref>  Sucrose is digested rapidly,<ref name="wolever">{{cite book|last=Wolever|first=Thomas M. S.|title=The Glycaemic Index: A Physiological Classification of Dietary Carbohydrate|publisher=CABI|year=2006|page=65|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_UkSoDwCN80C&pg=PA65|isbn=9781845930523|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216215845/https://books.google.com/books?id=_UkSoDwCN80C&pg=PA65|archive-date=2017-12-16}}</ref><ref name="nas">{{cite book|last=Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine of the US National Academies|title=Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and amino acids (macronutrients)|publisher=National Academies Press|year=2005|page=323|doi=10.17226/10490|isbn=978-0-309-08525-0|url=https://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10490&page=323|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715023623/https://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10490&page=323|archive-date=2015-07-15}}</ref> but has a relatively low glycemic index due to its content of fructose, which has a minimal effect on blood glucose.<ref name="wolever" />

As with other sugars, sucrose is digested into its components via the enzyme [[sucrase]] to glucose (blood sugar). The glucose component is transported into the blood where it serves immediate metabolic demands, or is converted and reserved in the [[liver]] as [[glycogen]].<ref name=nas/>

====Gout====
The occurrence of [[gout]] is connected with an excess production of uric acid. A diet rich in sucrose may lead to gout as it raises the level of insulin, which prevents excretion of uric acid from the body. As the concentration of uric acid in the body increases, so does the concentration of uric acid in the joint liquid and beyond a critical concentration, the uric acid begins to precipitate into crystals. Researchers have implicated sugary drinks high in fructose in a surge in cases of gout.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.abcvitaminslife.com/HealthFacts/Article429.aspx |title=Nutrients for Gout – good and bad |author=Magidenko, Leonid |publisher=ABCVitaminsLife.com |date=2007-07-30 |access-date=2010-05-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223191342/https://www.abcvitaminslife.com/HealthFacts/Article429.aspx |archive-date=2009-02-23 }}</ref>

====Sucrose intolerance====
{{main|Sucrose intolerance}}

===UN dietary recommendation===
In 2015, the [[World Health Organization]] published a new guideline on sugars intake for adults and children, as a result of an extensive review of the available scientific evidence by a multidisciplinary group of experts. The guideline recommends that both adults and children ensure their intake of free sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods and beverages by the manufacturer, cook or consumer, and sugars naturally present in honey, syrups, fruit juices and fruit juice concentrates) is less than 10% of total energy intake. A level below 5% of total energy intake brings additional health benefits, especially with regards to dental caries.<ref>See [https://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/guidelines/sugars_intake/en/ ''Guideline: Sugars intake for adults and children. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2015'' ] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817100425/https://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/guidelines/sugars_intake/en/ |date=2015-08-17 }}</ref>

===Religious concerns===
The sugar refining industry often uses bone char ([[calcinated]] animal bones) for decolorizing.<ref>[https://www.vegfamily.com/articles/sugar.htm The Great Sugar Debate: Is it Vegan?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090919012241/https://www.vegfamily.com/articles/sugar.htm |date=2009-09-19 }}. Vegfamily.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-18.</ref><ref name="VegetarianJournal">{{cite journal
 |last        = Yacoubou, MS
 |first       = Jeanne
 |title       = Is Your Sugar Vegan? An Update on Sugar Processing Practices
 |journal     = Vegetarian Journal
 |volume      = 26
 |issue       = 4
 |pages       = 16–20
 |publisher   = The Vegetarian Resource Group
 |location    = Baltimore, MD
 |year        = 2007
 |url         = https://www.vrg.org/journal/vj2007issue4/vj2007issue4.pdf
 |access-date  = 2007-04-04
 |url-status     = live
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20080409003341/https://www.vrg.org/journal/vj2007issue4/vj2007issue4.pdf
 |archive-date = 2008-04-09
}}</ref> About 25% of sugar produced in the U.S. is processed using bone char as a filter, the remainder being processed with [[activated carbon]]. As bone char does not seem to remain in finished sugar, Jewish religious leaders consider sugar filtered through it to be [[pareve]], meaning that it is neither meat nor dairy and may be used with either type of food. However, the bone char must source to a kosher animal (e.g. cow, sheep) for the sugar to be [[kosher]].<ref name="VegetarianJournal"/>