Editing Sogdia (section)

== Language and culture ==
The 6th century is thought to be the peak of Sogdian culture, judging by its highly developed artistic tradition. By this point, the Sogdians were entrenched in their role as the central Asian traveling and trading merchants, transferring goods, culture and religion.<ref>Luce Boulnois (2005), ''Silk Road: Monks, Warriors & Merchants'', Odyssey Books, pp 239–241, {{ISBN|962-217-721-2}}.</ref> During the [[Middle Ages]], the [[Zarafshan Range|valley of the Zarafshan]] around Samarkand retained its Sogdian name, Samarkand.<ref name="encyclopedia britannica">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Sogdiana}}</ref> According to the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', medieval [[Arab geographers]] considered it one of the four fairest regions of the world.<ref name="encyclopedia britannica" /> Where the Sogdians moved in considerable numbers, their language made a considerable impact. For instance, [[History of the Han dynasty|during China's Han dynasty]], the native name of the Tarim Basin city-state of [[Loulan]] was "Kroraina", possibly [[Greek language|from Greek]] due to [[Indo-Greek Kingdom|nearby Hellenistic influence]].<ref>Kazuo Enoki (1998), "Yü-ni-ch'êng and the Site of Lou-Lan", and "The Location of the Capital of Lou-Lan and the Date of the Kharoshthi Inscriptions", in Rokuro Kono (ed.), ''Studia Asiatica: The Collected Papers in Western Languages of the Late Dr. Kazuo Enoki'', Tokyo: Kyu-Shoin, pp 200, 211–57.</ref> However, centuries later in 664 AD, the Tang Chinese Buddhist monk [[Xuanzang]] labelled it as "Nafupo" (納縛溥), which according to Hisao Matsuda is a transliteration of the Sogdian word ''Navapa'' meaning "new water".<ref>Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)", in Victor H. Mair (ed), ''Sino-Platonic Papers'', No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, pp 20–21 footnote #38, {{ISSN|2157-9687}}.</ref>

=== Art ===
{{main article|Sogdian art}}{{see also|Art of Central Asia}}
The [[Afrasiab painting]]s of the 6th to 7th centuries in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, offer a rare surviving example of Sogdian art. The paintings, showing scenes of daily life and events such as the arrival of foreign ambassadors, are located within the ruins of aristocratic homes. It is unclear if any of these palatial residences served as the official palace of the rulers of Samarkand.<ref>A. M. Belenitskii and B. I. Marshak (1981), "Part One: the Paintings of Sogdiana" in Guitty Azarpay, ''Sogdian Painting: the Pictorial Epic in Oriental Art'', Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, p. 47, {{ISBN|0-520-03765-0}}.</ref> The oldest surviving Sogdian monumental wall murals date to the 5th century and are located at Panjakent, Tajikistan.<ref>A. M. Belenitskii and B. I. Marshak (1981), "Part One: the Paintings of Sogdiana" in Guitty Azarpay, ''Sogdian Painting: the Pictorial Epic in Oriental Art'', Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, p. 13, {{ISBN|0-520-03765-0}}.</ref> In addition to revealing aspects of their social and political lives, Sogdian art has also been instrumental in aiding historians' understanding of their religious beliefs. For instance, it is clear that Buddhist Sogdians incorporated some of their own [[Persian mythology|Iranian deities]] into their version of the [[Buddhist Pantheon]]. At [[Zhetysu]], Sogdian [[gilded]] bronze plaques on a [[Buddhist temple]] show a pairing of a male and female deity with outstretched hands holding a miniature [[camel]], a common non-Buddhist image similarly found in the paintings of Samarkand and Panjakent.<ref>A. M. Belenitskii and B. I. Marshak (1981), "Part One: the Paintings of Sogdiana" in Guitty Azarpay, ''Sogdian Painting: the Pictorial Epic in Oriental Art'', Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, pp 34–35, {{ISBN|0-520-03765-0}}.</ref>

=== Language ===
{{main article|Sogdian language}}
[[File:Rubbing of Epitaph of the Sa-pao Wirkak (Part 1).jpg|thumb|upright=2|Epitaph in Sogdian by the sons of [[Wirkak]], a Sogdian merchant and official who died in China in 580 CE.]]
The Sogdians spoke an [[Eastern Iranian]] language called Sogdian, closely related to [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]], [[Khwarezmian language|Khwarazmian]], and the [[Kingdom of Khotan|Khotanese]] [[Saka language]], widely spoken Eastern Iranian languages of Central Asia in ancient times.<ref name="dresden 1981 p5" /><ref name="tafazzoli 2003 p323">Tafazzoli, A. (2003), "Iranian Languages", in C. E. Bosworth and M. S. Asimov, ''History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume IV: The Age of Achievement, A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century'', Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, p 323.</ref> Sogdian was also prominent in the [[oasis]] city-state of [[Turfan]] in the [[Tarim Basin]] region of [[Northwest China]] (in modern [[Xinjiang]]).<ref name="tafazzoli 2003 p323" /> Judging by the Sogdian [[Bugut inscription]] of [[Mongolia]] written c. 581, the Sogdian language was also an official language of the First Turkic Khaganate established by the [[Gokturks]].<ref name="dresden 1981 p9">Mark J. Dresden (1981), "Introductory Note", in Guitty Azarpay, Sogdian Painting: the Pictorial Epic in Oriental Art, Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, p. 9, {{ISBN|0-520-03765-0}}.</ref><ref name="tafazzoli 2003 p323" />

Sogdian was written largely in three scripts: the [[Sogdian alphabet]], the [[Syriac alphabet]], and the [[Manichaean alphabet]], each derived from the [[Aramaic alphabet]],<ref>Tafazzoli, A. (2003), "Iranian Languages", in C. E. Bosworth and M. S. Asimov, ''History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume IV: The Age of Achievement, A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century'', Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, pp 325–26.</ref><ref>Mark J. Dresden (1981), "Introductory Note", in Guitty Azarpay, Sogdian Painting: the Pictorial Epic in Oriental Art, Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, pp 5–6, {{ISBN|0-520-03765-0}}.</ref> which had been widely used in both the [[Achaemenid]] and [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] empires of ancient Iran.<ref name="baumer 2012 pp202-203">Christoph Baumer (2012), ''The History of Central Asia: the Age of the Steppe Warriors'', London, New York: I.B. Tauris, p. 202–203, {{ISBN|978-1-78076-060-5}}.</ref><ref>Boyce, Mary (1983), "Parthian Writings and Literature", in Ehsan Yarshater, ''Cambridge History of Iran, 3.2'', London & New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1151–1152. {{ISBN|0-521-20092-X}}.</ref> The Sogdian alphabet formed the basis of the [[Old Uyghur alphabet]] of the 8th century, which in turn was used to create the [[Mongolian script]] of the early [[Mongol Empire]] during the 13th century.<ref>Tafazzoli, A. (2003), "Iranian Languages", in C. E. Bosworth and M. S. Asimov, ''History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume IV: The Age of Achievement, A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century'', Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, p 325.</ref> Later in 1599, the Jurchen leader Nurhaci decided to convert the Mongolian alphabet to make it suitable for the [[Manchu people]].

The [[Yaghnobi people]] living in the [[Sughd]] province of [[Tajikistan]] still speak [[Yaghnobi language|a descendant of the Sogdian language]].<ref name="dresden 2003 p1217" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Bergne|title=The Birth of Tajikistan: National Identity and the Origins of the Republic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3coojMwTKU8C&pg=PA6|date=15 June 2007|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-283-7|pages=6–}}</ref> Yaghnobi is largely a continuation of the medieval Sogdian dialect from the [[Osrushana]] region of the western [[Fergana Valley]].<ref>Mark J. Dresden (1981), "Introductory Note", in Guitty Azarpay, ''Sogdian Painting: the Pictorial Epic in Oriental Art'', Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, pp 2 & 5, {{ISBN|0-520-03765-0}}.</ref> The great majority of the Sogdian people assimilated with other local groups such as the Bactrians, [[Kwaresm|Chorasmians]], and [[Persians]], and came to speak Persian. In 819, the Persian speaking population founded the Samanid Empire in the region. They are among the ancestors of the modern [[Tajiks]]. Numerous Sogdian [[cognate]]s can be found in the modern Tajik language, although the latter is a [[Western Iranian language]].

=== Clothing ===
[[File:Sogdian New Year Festival, Northern Qi.jpg|thumb|Sogdians, depicted on the [[Anyang funerary bed]], a Sogdian sarcophagus in China during the [[Northern Qi]] dynasty (550–577 AD). [[Guimet Museum]].]]
Early medieval Sogdian costumes can be divided in two periods: [[Hephthalite|Hephtalitic]] (5th and 6th centuries) and Turkic (7th and early 8th centuries). The latter did not become common immediately after the political dominance of the [[Gökturks]] but only in c. 620 when, especially following [[Western Turkic Khaganate|Western Turkic]] Khagan [[Tong Yabghu Qaghan|Ton-jazbgu]]'s reforms, Sogd was Turkized and the local nobility was officially included in the Khaganate's administration.<ref name="YatsenkoSogdianCostume">{{cite journal|url=http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/yatsenko.html |first=Sergey A. |last=Yatsenko |title=The Late Sogdian Costume (the 5th – 8th centuries) |journal=Transoxiana |issue=Webfestschrift Marshak |year=2003}}</ref>

For both sexes clothes were tight-fitted, and narrow waists and wrists were appreciated. The silhouettes for grown men and young girls emphasized wide shoulders and narrowed to the waist; the silhouettes for female aristocrats were more complicated. The Sogdian clothing underwent a thorough process of Islamization in the ensuing centuries, with few of the original elements remaining. In their stead, turbans, [[kaftan]]s, and sleeved coats became more common.<ref name="YatsenkoSogdianCostume" />

=== Religious beliefs ===
{{further|Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|Mar Ammo|Bible translations into Sogdian}}
The Sogdians practiced a variety of religious faiths. However, Zoroastrianism was most likely their main religion, as demonstrated by material evidence, such as the discovery in Samarkand, Panjakent and Er-Kurgan of murals depicting votaries making offerings before fire altars and [[ossuaries]] holding the bones of the dead – in accordance with Zoroastrian ritual. At [[Turfan]], Sogdian burials shared similar features with traditional Chinese practices, yet they still retained essential Zoroastrian rituals, such as [[Tower of Silence|allowing the bodies to be picked clean]] by [[scavenger]]s before burying the bones in ossuaries.<ref name="hansen 2012 p98">Hansen, Valerie (2012), ''The Silk Road: A New History'', Oxford University Press, p. 98, {{ISBN|978-0-19-993921-3}}.</ref> They also [[Animal sacrifice|sacrificed animals]] to Zoroastrian deities, including the supreme deity [[Ahura Mazda]].<ref name="hansen 2012 p98" /> Zoroastrianism remained the dominant religion among Sogdians until after the [[Early Muslim conquests|Islamic conquest]], when they gradually converted to Islam, as is shown by Richard Bulliet's "conversion curve".<ref name="Tobin">Tobin 113–115</ref>

One of the most widely worshiped deities in Sogdia was the goddess [[Nana (Bactrian goddess)|Nana]], derived from the Mesopotamian goddess [[Nanaya]], and is traditionally depicted as a 4 armed goddess riding a lion, holding the sun and moon. She and the river god [[Oxus (god)|Oxus]] were some of the most widely attested deities from the region.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shenkar |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WZ6XCgAAQBAJ |title=Intangible Spirits and Graven Images: The Iconography of Deities in the Pre-Islamic Iranian World |date=8 September 2014 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-28149-3 |language=en}}</ref> She was regarded as a civic and astral goddess, and her sacred city was Panjikent.

{{multiple image| align = right |total_width=400 | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = left/right/center | footer = '''Left''': An 8th-century [[Tang dynasty]] [[Chinese ceramics|Chinese clay figurine]] of a Sogdian man wearing a distinctive cap and face veil, a probable [[Mobad|Zoroastrian priest]] engaging in a ritual at a [[fire temple]], since face veils were used to avoid contaminating the holy fire with breath or saliva; [[Museum of Oriental Art (Turin)]], Italy.<ref>Lee Lawrence. (3 September 2011). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424053111904332804576540533071105892 "A Mysterious Stranger in China"]. ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''. Retrieved 31 August 2016.</ref><br /> '''Right''': A Zoroastrian fire worship ceremony, depicted on the [[Tomb of Anjia]], a Sogdian merchant in China.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jin |first1=Xu 徐津 |title=The Funerary Couch of An Jia and the Art of Sogdian Immigrants in Sixth-century China |journal=The Burlington Magazine |date=1 January 2019 |page=824 |url=https://www.academia.edu/40962371}}</ref>| footer_align = left | image1 = Dinastia tang, shanxi, straniero dal volto velato, 600-750 ca.JPG| image2 = Gable of the stone gate of the Tomb of An Jia with reproduction.jpg}}
The Sogdian religious texts found in China and dating to the [[Northern and Southern dynasties#The Northern dynasties|Northern dynasties]], [[Sui dynasty|Sui]], and Tang are mostly Buddhist (translated from Chinese sources), Manichaean, and [[Nestorian Christian]], with only a small minority of Zoroastrian texts.<ref name="Grenet">{{cite journal|last=Grenet |first=Frantz |title=Religious Diversity among Sogdian Merchants in Sixth-Century China: Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Manichaeism, and Hinduism | journal=Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East |volume=27 |issue=2 |year=2007 |publisher=Duke University Press |pages=463–478 |doi=10.1215/1089201x-2007-017|s2cid=144300435 }}</ref> But, tombs of Sogdian merchants in China dated to the last third of the 6th century show predominantly Zoroastrian motifs or Zoroastrian-Manichaean syncretism, while archaeological remains from Sogdiana appear fairly Iranian and conservatively Zoroastrian.<ref name="Grenet" />

However, the Sogdians epitomized the religious plurality found along the trade routes. The largest body of Sogdian texts are Buddhist, and Sogdians were among the principal translators of Buddhist sutras into Chinese. However, Buddhism did not take root in Sogdiana itself.<ref>A. M. Belenitskii and B. I. Marshak (1981), "Part One: the Paintings of Sogdiana" in Guitty Azarpay, ''Sogdian Painting: the Pictorial Epic in Oriental Art'', Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, p. 35, {{ISBN|0-520-03765-0}}.</ref> Additionally, the [[Bulayiq]] monastery to the north of Turpan contained Sogdian Christian texts, and there are numerous Manichaean texts in Sogdiana from nearby Qocho.<ref>J. Rose, 'The Sogdians: Prime Movers between Boundaries', ''Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East'', vol. 30, no. 3 (2010), pp. 416–7</ref> The reconversion of Sogdians from Buddhism to Zoroastrianism coincided with the adoption of Zoroastrianism by the Sassanid Empire of Persia.<ref name="liu 2001 p168" /> From the 4th century onwards, Sogdian Buddhist pilgrims left behind evidence of their travels along the steep cliffs of the [[Indus River]] and [[Hunza Valley]]. It was here that they carved images of the [[Buddha]] and holy [[stupa]]s in addition to their full names, in hopes that the Buddha would grant them his protection.<ref>Liu, Xinru (2010), ''The Silk Road in World History'', Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, p 67–8.</ref>

The Sogdians also practiced Manichaeism, the faith of [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]], which they spread among the Uyghurs. The [[Uyghur Khaganate]] (744–840 AD) developed close ties to Tang China once it had aided the Tang in suppressing the rebellion of An Lushan and his Göktürk successor [[Shi Siming]], establishing an annual trade relationship of one million bolts of Chinese silk for one hundred thousand horses.<ref name="liu 2001 p169">Liu, Xinru, "The Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Interactions in Eurasia", in ''Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History'', ed. Michael Adas, American Historical Association, Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001, p. 169.</ref> The Uyghurs relied on Sogdian merchants to sell much of this silk further west along the Silk Road, a symbiotic relationship that led many Uyghurs to adopt [[Chinese Manichaeism|Manichaeism from the Sogdians]].<ref name="liu 2001 p169" /> However, evidence of Manichaean liturgical and canonical texts of Sogdian origin remains fragmentary and sparse compared to their corpus of Buddhist writings.<ref>Dresden, Mark J. (2003), "Sogdian Language and Literature", in Ehsan Yarshater, ''The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 1224, {{ISBN|0-521-24699-7}}.</ref> The Uyghurs were also followers of Buddhism. For instance, they can be seen wearing silk robes in the ''praṇidhi'' scenes of the [[Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves|Uyghur Bezeklik Buddhist murals]] of Xinjiang, China, particularly Scene 6 from Temple 9 showing [[:File:BezeklikSogdianMerchants.jpg|Sogdian donors to the Buddha]].<ref name="gasparini 2014 pp134-163">Gasparini, Mariachiara. "[http://heiup.uni-heidelberg.de/journals/index.php/transcultural/article/view/12313/8711#_edn32 A Mathematic Expression of Art: Sino-Iranian and Uighur Textile Interactions and the Turfan Textile Collection in Berlin]", in Rudolf G. Wagner and Monica Juneja (eds), ''Transcultural Studies'', Ruprecht-Karls Universität Heidelberg, No 1 (2014), pp 134–163</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://heiup.uni-heidelberg.de/journals/index.php/transcultural/article/view/12313/8711#_edn32 |title=A Mathematic Expression of Art: Sino-Iranian and Uighur Textile Interactions and the Turfan Textile Collection in Berlin |journal=Transcultural Studies |date=3 January 2014 |volume=1 |issue=2014 |doi=10.11588/ts.2014.1.12313 |access-date=25 July 2017|last1=Gasparini |first1=Mariachiara }}</ref>

[[File:Shiva with Trisula Panjikent 7th–8th century CE Hermitage Museum.jpg|thumb|left|[[Shiva]] (with [[trisula]]), attended by Sogdian devotees. [[Penjikent murals|Penjikent]], 7th–8th century AD. [[Hermitage Museum]].]]
In addition to [[Puranas|Puranic cults]], there were five [[Hindu deities]] known to have been worshipped in Sogdiana.<ref name="kumar 2007 p8" /> These were [[Brahma]], [[Indra]], [[Shiva|Mahadeva]] (Shiva), [[Narayana]], and [[Vaishravana]]; the gods Brahma, Indra, and Shiva were known by their Sogdian names Zravan, Adbad and Veshparkar, respectively.,<ref name="kumar 2007 p8" />  As seen in an 8th-century mural from Panjakent, portable [[fire altar]]s can be "associated" with [[Mahadeva (Buddhism)|Mahadeva]]-Veshparkar, Brahma-Zravan, and Indra-Abdab, according to Braja Bihārī Kumar.<ref name="kumar 2007 p8">Braja Bihārī Kumar (2007). "India and Central Asia: Links and Interactions", in J.N. Roy and B.B. Kumar (eds), ''India and Central Asia: Classical to Contemporary Periods'', 3–33.  New Delhi: Published for Astha Bharati Concept Publishing Company. {{ISBN|81-8069-457-7}}, p. 8.</ref>

Among the Sogdian Christians known in China from inscriptions and texts were An Yena, a Christian from An country (Bukhara). Mi Jifen a Christian from Mi country (Maymurgh), Kang Zhitong, a Sogdian Christian cleric from Kang country (Samarkand), Mi Xuanqing a Sogdian Christian cleric from Mi country (Maymurgh), Mi Xuanying, a Sogdian Christian cleric from Mi country (Maymurgh), An Qingsu, a Sogdian Christian monk from An country (Bukhara).<ref>{{cite book |last=Nicolini-Zani |first= Mattco |editor1-last=Tang |editor1-first=Li |editor2-last=Winkler |editor2-first=Dietmar W. |date=2013 |title= From the Oxus River to the Chinese Shores: Studies on East Syriac Christianity in China and Central Asia |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=VYaMuV3N5vUC&pg=PA151 |publisher= LIT Verlag Münster |edition= illustrated |isbn=978-3-643-90329-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= S.V.D. Research Institute, Monumenta Serica Institute |date=2009 |title= Monumenta Serica: Journal of Oriental Studies, Volume 57 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NzxDAQAAIAAJ&q=yena+sogdian+name |quote= The first one is the funerary inscription of another Bukharan Christian, who died during the Jinglong JptH era (707–710) in Guilin ££^, southern China, and whose name was An Yena^Wffi (see Jiang Boqin 1994). The second is the epitaph of the Sogdian gentleman Mi Jifen ^Iffi^ (714–805) from Maymurgh; in his study Ge Chengyong has discovered that Mi's son was a Christian monk and that his family was therefore most probably Christian, too (see Ge Chengyong 2001). Generally ... |publisher=H. Vetch |page=120 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Nicolini-Zani |first= Matteo |date=2006 |title= La via radiosa per l'Oriente: i testi e la storia del primo incontro del cristianesimo con il mondo culturale e religioso cinese (secoli VII-IX) |series= Spiritualità orientale |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xhYQAQAAIAAJ&q=yena+sogdian |quote=... di almeno un testo cristiano in cinese, il rotolo P. 3847, contenente la traduzione cinese dell'inno siriaco Gloria in excelsis Deo, di cui fu redatta anche una traduzione sogdiana(giunta a noi in frammenti) a Bulayìq (Turfan). L'unico elemento che ci conferma, infine, una assai probabile presenza cristiana in quest'epoca nel sud della Cina, legata ai commerci marittimi, è il ritrovamento presso Guilin (odierno Guangxi) dell'epitaffio funebre del cristiano An Yena, morto tra il 707 e il 709. |publisher=Edizioni Qiqajon, Comunità di Bose |page=121 |isbn=88-8227-212-5 }}</ref>

[[File:Bezeklik caves, Pranidhi scene 14, temple 9.JPG|thumb|Pranidhi scene, temple 9 (Cave 20) of the [[Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves]], [[Turfan]], [[Xinjiang]], China, 9th century AD, with kneeling figures with [[Caucasian race|Caucasian]] features and [[Green-eyed|green eyes]] praying in front of the Buddha. Modern scholarship has identified [[:File:BezeklikSogdianMerchants.jpg|''praṇidhi'' scenes of the same temple]] (No. 9) as depicting Sogdians,<ref name="gasparini 2014 pp134-163" /> who inhabited Turfan as an ethnic minority during the phases of [[Tang dynasty|Tang Chinese]] (7th–8th century) and [[Kingdom of Qocho|Uyghur rule]] (9th–13th century).<ref name="hansen 2012 p98" />]]
When visiting [[Yuan-era]] [[Zhenjiang]], [[Jiangsu]], China during the late 13th century, the [[Venice|Venetian]] explorer and merchant [[Marco Polo]] noted that [[Europeans in Medieval China|a large number]] of [[Christian church]]es had been built there. His claim is confirmed by a Chinese text of the 14th century explaining how a Sogdian named Mar-Sargis from Samarkand founded six [[Church of the East in China|Nestorian Christian churches]] there, in addition to one in [[Hangzhou]] during the second half of the 13th century.<ref>Emmerick, R. E. (2003) "Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs", in Ehsan Yarshater, ''The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 275.</ref> Nestorian Christianity had existed in China earlier during the Tang dynasty when a Persian monk named [[Alopen]] came to Chang'an in 653 to [[proselytize]], as described in a dual Chinese and [[Syriac language]] inscription from Chang'an (modern Xi'an), dated to the year 781.<ref>Emmerick, R. E. (2003) "Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs", in Ehsan Yarshater, ''The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 274.</ref> Within the Syriac inscription is a list of priests and monks, one of whom is named Gabriel, the [[archdeacon]] of "Xumdan" and "Sarag", the Sogdian names for the Chinese capital cities [[Chang'an]] and [[Luoyang]], respectively.<ref>Emmerick, R. E. (2003) "Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs", in Ehsan Yarshater, ''The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 274–5.</ref> In regards to textual material, the earliest Christian [[gospel]] texts [[Bible translations into Sogdian|translated into Sogdian]] coincide with the reign of the Sasanian Persian monarch [[Yazdegerd II]] (r. 438–457), and were translated from the ''[[Peshitta]]'', the standard version of the [[Bible]] in [[Syriac Christianity]].<ref>Dresden, Mark J. (2003), "Sogdian Language and Literature", in Ehsan Yarshater, ''The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 1225–1226, {{ISBN|0-521-24699-7}}.</ref>