Editing Sculpture (section)

====Europe after the Greeks====
=====Roman sculpture=====
{{main|Roman sculpture}}
[[File:26 colonna traiana da estt 05.jpg|thumb|Section of [[Trajan's Column]], CE 113, with scenes from the [[Trajan's Dacian Wars|Dacian Wars]]]]
[[File:Ara Pacis Relief Pax.jpg|thumb|[[Augustus|Augustan]] state Greco-Roman style on the {{Lang|la|[[Ara Pacis]]|italic=no}}, 13 BCE]]
Early Roman art was influenced by the art of Greece and that of the neighbouring [[Etruscan art|Etruscans]], themselves greatly influenced by their Greek trading partners. An Etruscan speciality was near life size tomb effigies in [[terracotta]], usually lying on top of a [[sarcophagus]] lid propped up on one elbow in the pose of a diner in that period. As the expanding [[Roman Republic]] began to conquer Greek territory, at first in Southern Italy and then the entire Hellenistic world except for the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] far east, official and [[Roman patrician|patrician]] sculpture became largely an extension of the Hellenistic style, from which specifically Roman elements are hard to disentangle, especially as so much Greek sculpture survives only in copies of the Roman period.<ref>Strong, 58–63; Hennig, 66–69.</ref> By the 2nd century BCE, "most of the sculptors working at Rome" were Greek,<ref>Hennig, 24.</ref> often enslaved in conquests such as that of [[Corinth]] (146 BCE), and sculptors continued to be mostly Greeks, often slaves, whose names are very rarely recorded. Vast numbers of Greek statues were imported to Rome, whether as booty or the result of extortion or commerce, and temples were often decorated with re-used Greek works.<ref>Henig, 66–69; Strong, 36–39, 48; At the trial of [[Verres]], former governor of Sicily, [[Cicero]]'s prosecution details his depredations of art collections at great length.</ref>

A native Italian style can be seen in the tomb monuments, which very often featured portrait busts, of prosperous middle-class Romans, and [[Roman portraiture|portraiture]] is arguably the main strength of Roman sculpture. There are no survivals from the tradition of masks of ancestors that were worn in processions at the funerals of the great families and otherwise displayed in the home, but many of the busts that survive must represent ancestral figures, perhaps from the large family tombs like the [[Tomb of the Scipios]] or the later mausolea outside the city. The famous bronze head supposedly of [[Lucius Junius Brutus]] is very variously dated, but taken as a very rare survival of Italic style under the Republic, in the preferred medium of bronze.<ref>Henig, 23–24.</ref> Similarly stern and forceful heads are seen on coins of the Late Republic, and in the Imperial period coins as well as busts sent around the Empire to be placed in the [[basilica]]s of provincial cities were the main visual form of imperial propaganda; even [[Londinium]] had a near-colossal statue of [[Nero]], though far smaller than the 30-metre-high [[Colossus of Nero]] in Rome, now lost.<ref>Henig, 66–71.</ref>

The Romans did not generally attempt to compete with free-standing Greek works of heroic exploits from history or mythology, but from early on produced historical works in relief, culminating in the great [[Roman triumphal column]]s with continuous narrative reliefs winding around them, of which those commemorating [[Trajan's Column|Trajan]] (CE 113) and [[Column of Marcus Aurelius|Marcus Aurelius]] (by 193) survive in Rome, where the {{Lang|la|[[Ara Pacis]]|italic=no}} ("Altar of Peace", 13 BCE) represents the official Greco-Roman style at its most classical and refined. Among other major examples are the earlier re-used reliefs on the [[Arch of Constantine]] and the base of the [[Column of Antoninus Pius]] (161),<ref>Henig, 73–82; Strong, 48–52, 80–83, 108–17, 128–32, 141–59, 177–82, 197–211.</ref> [[Campana relief]]s were cheaper pottery versions of marble reliefs and the taste for relief was from the imperial period expanded to the sarcophagus. All forms of luxury small sculpture continued to be patronized, and quality could be extremely high, as in the silver [[Warren Cup]], glass [[Lycurgus Cup]], and large cameos like the [[Gemma Augustea]], [[Gonzaga Cameo]] and the "[[Great Cameo of France]]".<ref>Henig, Chapter 6; Strong, 303–15.</ref>  For a much wider section of the population, moulded relief decoration of [[Ancient Roman pottery|pottery vessels]] and small figurines were produced in great quantity and often considerable quality.<ref>Henig, Chapter 8.</ref>

After moving through a late 2nd-century "baroque" phase,<ref>Strong, 171–76, 211–14.</ref> in the 3rd century, Roman art largely abandoned, or simply became unable to produce, sculpture in the classical tradition, a change whose causes remain much discussed. Even the most important imperial monuments now showed stumpy, large-eyed figures in a harsh frontal style, in simple compositions emphasizing power at the expense of grace. The contrast is famously illustrated in the [[Arch of Constantine]] of 315 in Rome, which combines sections in the new style with [[roundel]]s in the earlier full Greco-Roman style taken from elsewhere, and the ''[[Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs|Four Tetrarchs]]'' ({{Circa|305}}) from the new capital of [[Constantinople]], now in Venice. [[Ernst Kitzinger]] found in both monuments the same "stubby proportions, angular movements, an ordering of parts through symmetry and repetition and a rendering of features and drapery folds through incisions rather than modelling... The hallmark of the style wherever it appears consists of an emphatic hardness, heaviness and angularity—in short, an almost complete rejection of the classical tradition".<ref>Kitzinger, 9 (both quotes), more generally his Ch 1; Strong, 250–57, 264–66, 272–80.</ref>

This revolution in style shortly preceded the period in which [[Christianity]] was adopted by the Roman state and the great majority of the people, leading to the end of large religious sculpture, with large statues now only used for emperors. However, rich Christians continued to commission reliefs for sarcophagi, as in the [[Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus]], and very small sculpture, especially in ivory, was continued by Christians, building on the style of the [[consular diptych]].<ref>Strong, 287–91, 305–08, 315–18; Henig, 234–40.</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Museo archeologico di Firenze, coperchio di sepolcro muliebre da Tuscania, terracotta con tracce di policromia III sec. d.c.JPG|[[Etruscan art|Etruscan]] [[sarcophagus]], 3rd century BCE
File:Capitoline Brutus Musei Capitolini MC1183 02.jpg|The "[[Capitoline Brutus]]", dated to the 3rd or 1st century BCE
File:Statue-Augustus.jpg|''[[Augustus of Prima Porta]]'', statue of the emperor [[Augustus]], 1st century CE. [[Vatican Museums]]
File:Tomba dei decii, dalla via ostiense, 98-117 dc..JPG|Tomb relief of the Decii, 98–117 CE
File:Claudius Pio-Clementino Inv243.jpg|Bust of [[Emperor Claudius]], {{Circa|50 CE}}, (reworked from a bust of emperor [[Caligula]]), It was found in the so-called Otricoli basilica in [[Lanuvium]], Italy, [[Vatican Museums]]
File:COMMODE HERCULE.jpg|[[Commodus]] dressed as [[Hercules]], {{Circa|191 CE}}, in the late imperial "baroque" style
File:Venice – The Tetrarchs 03.jpg|''[[Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs|The Four Tetrarchs]]'', {{Circa|305}}, showing the new anti-classical style, in [[Porphyry (geology)|porphyry]], now [[San Marco, Venice]]
File:Great Cameo of France CdM Paris Bab264 white background.jpg|The [[hardstone carving|cameo gem]] known as the "[[Great Cameo of France]]", {{Circa|23 CE}}, with an [[allegory]] of [[Augustus]] and his family
</gallery>

=====Early Medieval and Byzantine=====
[[File:St Ninian's Isle TreasureDSCF6209det.jpg|thumb|Silver monster on a [[chape]], Scottish or Anglo-Saxon, [[St Ninian's Isle Treasure]], {{Circa|800}}]]
[[File:Gerokreuz full 20050903.jpg|thumb|The [[Gero Cross]], {{Circa|965–970}}, [[Cologne]], Germany, the first great example of the revival of large sculpture]]
The [[Early Christian]]s were opposed to monumental religious sculpture, though Roman traditions continued in portrait busts and [[sarcophagus]] reliefs, as well as smaller objects such as the consular diptych. Such objects, often in valuable materials, were also the main sculptural traditions (as far as is known) of the civilizations of the [[Migration period]], as seen in the objects found in the 6th-century burial treasure at [[Sutton Hoo]], and the jewellery of [[Scythian art]] and the hybrid Christian and [[animal style]] productions of [[Insular art]]. Following the continuing Byzantine tradition, [[Carolingian art]] revived ivory carving in the West, often in panels for the [[treasure binding]]s of grand [[illuminated manuscript]]s, as well as [[crozier]] heads and other small fittings.

[[Byzantine art]], though producing superb ivory reliefs and architectural decorative carving, never returned to monumental sculpture, or even much small sculpture in the round.<ref>Robinson, 12, 15.</ref>  However, in the West during the [[Carolingian]] and [[Ottonian]] periods there was the beginnings of a production of monumental statues, in courts and major churches. This gradually spread; by the late 10th and 11th century there are records of several apparently life-size sculptures in [[Anglo-Saxon art|Anglo-Saxon]] churches, probably of precious metal around a wooden frame, like the [[Golden Madonna of Essen]]. No Anglo-Saxon example has survived,<ref>Dodwell, Chapter 2.</ref> and survivals of large non-architectural sculpture from before the year 1000 are exceptionally rare. Much the finest is the [[Gero Cross]], of 965–970, which is a [[crucifix]], which was evidently the commonest type of sculpture; [[Charlemagne]] had set one up in the [[Palatine Chapel in Aachen]] around 800. These continued to grow in popularity, especially in Germany and Italy. The [[runestone]]s of the [[Nordic countries|Nordic]] world, the [[Pictish stone]]s of Scotland and possibly the [[high cross]] reliefs of Christian Great Britain, were northern sculptural traditions that bridged the period of Christianization.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Byzantine ivory 801.jpg|''[[Archangel Ivory]]'', 525–550, [[Constantinople]]
File:Saint Remigius binding Medieval Picardie Museum.jpg|Late [[Carolingian art|Carolingian]] ivory panel, probably meant for a book-cover
File:Triptych Harbaville Louvre OA3247 recto.jpg|The [[Harbaville Triptych]], [[Byzantine art|Byzantine]] [[ivory]], mid-10th century
</gallery>

=====Romanesque=====
{{main|Romanesque art}}
[[File:Braunschweiger Löwe, original in the Dankwarderode Castle - Braunschweig, Germany - DSC04562.JPG|thumb|''[[Brunswick Lion]]'', 1166, the first large hollow casting of a figure since antiquity, 1.78 metres tall and 2.79 metres long]]
[[Image:Cologne Cathedral Shrine of Magi.jpg|thumb|''[[Shrine of the Three Kings]]'' in [[Cologne Cathedral]]]]
Beginning in roughly 1000 A.D., there was a rebirth of artistic production in all Europe, led by general economic growth in production and commerce, and the new style of [[Romanesque art]] was the first medieval style to be used in the whole of Western Europe. The new cathedrals and pilgrim's churches were increasingly decorated with architectural stone reliefs, and new focuses for sculpture developed, such as the [[Tympanum (architecture)|tympanum]] over church doors in the 12th century, and the inhabited [[Capital (architecture)#Romanesque and Gothic capitals|capital]] with figures and often narrative scenes. Outstanding abbey churches with sculpture include in France [[Abbey of la Madaleine, Vézelay|Vézelay]] and [[Moissac Abbey|Moissac]] and in Spain [[Abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos|Silos]].<ref>Calkins, 79–80, 90–102.</ref>

Romanesque art was characterised by a very vigorous style in both sculpture and painting. The capitals of columns were never more exciting than in this period, when they were often carved with complete scenes with several figures.<ref>Calkins, 107–14.</ref>  The large wooden [[crucifix]] was a German innovation right at the start of the period, as were free-standing statues of the enthroned Madonna, but the [[high relief]] was above all the sculptural mode of the period. Compositions usually had little depth, and needed to be flexible to squeeze themselves into the shapes of capitals, and church typanums; the tension between a tightly enclosing frame, from which the composition sometimes escapes, is a recurrent theme in Romanesque art. Figures still often varied in size in relation to their importance portraiture hardly existed.

Objects in precious materials such as ivory and metal had a very high status in the period, much more so than monumental sculpture — we know the names of more makers of these than painters, illuminators or architect-masons. Metalwork, including decoration in [[Vitreous enamel|enamel]], became very sophisticated, and many spectacular shrines made to hold relics have survived, of which the best known is the [[Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral]] by [[Nicholas of Verdun]]. The bronze [[Gloucester candlestick]] and the [[Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège|brass font of 1108–17 now in Liège]] are superb examples, very different in style, of metal casting, the former highly intricate and energetic, drawing on manuscript painting, while the font shows the Mosan style at its most classical and majestic. The bronze doors, a triumphal column and other fittings at [[St. Mary's Cathedral, Hildesheim|Hildesheim Cathedral]], the [[Gniezno Doors]], and the doors of the [[Basilica di San Zeno]] in [[Verona]] are other substantial survivals. The [[aquamanile]], a container for water to wash with, appears to have been introduced to Europe in the 11th century, and often took fantastic [[zoomorphic]] forms; surviving examples are mostly in brass. Many wax impressions from impressive seals survive on charters and documents, although Romanesque coins are generally not of great aesthetic interest.<ref>Calkins, 115–32.</ref>

The [[Cloisters Cross]] is an unusually large [[ivory]] [[crucifix]], with complex carving including many figures of [[prophet]]s and others, which has been attributed to one of the relatively few artists whose name is known, [[Master Hugo]], who also illuminated manuscripts. Like many pieces it was originally partly coloured. The [[Lewis chessmen]] are well-preserved examples of small ivories, of which many pieces or fragments remain from [[crozier]]s, plaques, [[pectoral cross]]es and similar objects.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="170px">
File:Renier de Huy JPG0.jpg|[[Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège]], ''[[Baptism of Jesus|Baptism of Christ]]'', 1107–1118
File:02 Basilique Ste-Marie-Madeleine de Vézelay - Tympan.jpg|The tympanum of [[Vézelay Abbey]], [[Burgundy (region)|Burgundy]], France, 1130s
File:Cathedral of Ourense (Spain).jpg|''Facade,'' Cathedral of [[Ourense]] 1160, Spain
File:Apóstoles del Pórtico de la Gloria.jpg|''Pórtico da Gloria'', [[Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], Spain, {{Circa|12th}}–13th centuries
</gallery>

===== Gothic =====
{{main|Gothic art}}
[[File:Vierge a l'Enfant debout.jpg|thumb|French ivory Virgin and Child, end of 13th century, 25 cm high, curving to fit the shape of the ivory tusk]]
The Gothic period is essentially defined by [[Gothic architecture]], and does not entirely fit with the development of style in sculpture in either its start or finish. The facades of large churches, especially around doors, continued to have large typanums, but also rows of sculpted figures spreading around them. The statues on the Western (Royal) Portal at [[Chartres Cathedral]] ({{circa|1145}}) show an elegant but exaggerated columnar elongation, but those on the south [[transept]] portal, from 1215 to 1220, show a more naturalistic style and increasing detachment from the wall behind, and some awareness of the classical tradition. These trends were continued in the west portal at [[Reims Cathedral]] of a few years later, where the figures are almost in the round, as became usual as Gothic spread across Europe.<ref>Honour and Fleming, 297–300; Henderson, 55, 82–84.</ref>

In Italy [[Nicola Pisano]] (1258–1278) and his son [[Giovanni Pisano|Giovanni]] developed a style that is often called [[Proto-Renaissance]], with unmistakable influence from Roman sarcophagi and sophisticated and crowded compositions, including a sympathetic handling of nudity, in relief panels on their [[Siena Cathedral Pulpit]] (1265–68), [[Pulpit in the Pisa Baptistery]] (1260), the [[Fontana Maggiore]] in [[Perugia]], and Giovanni's [[Pulpit by Giovanni Pisano in Sant'Andrea, Pistoia|pulpit in Pistoia]] of 1301.<ref>Olson, 11–24; Honour and Fleming, 304; Henderson, 41.</ref>  Another revival of classical style is seen in the [[International Gothic]] work of [[Claus Sluter]] and his followers in [[Burgundy (historical region)|Burgundy]] and [[Flanders]] around 1400.<ref>Snyder, 65–69.</ref>  Late Gothic sculpture continued in the North, with a fashion for very large wooden sculpted altarpieces with increasingly virtuoso carving and large numbers agitated expressive figures; most surviving examples are in Germany, after much iconoclasm elsewhere. [[Tilman Riemenschneider]], [[Veit Stoss]] and others continued the style well into the 16th century, gradually absorbing Italian Renaissance influences.<ref>Snyder, 305–11.</ref>

Life-size tomb effigies in stone or [[alabaster]] became popular for the wealthy, and grand multi-level tombs evolved, with the [[Scaliger Tombs]] of [[Verona]] so large they had to be moved outside the church. By the 15th century there was an industry exporting [[Nottingham alabaster]] altar reliefs in groups of panels over much of Europe for economical parishes who could not afford stone retables.<ref>[http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/bbchistory/object_text07.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120804003215/http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/bbchistory/object_text07.htm|date=2012-08-04}} [[V&A Museum]] feature on the Nottingham alabaster ''Swansea Altarpiece''.</ref>  Small carvings, for a mainly lay and often female market, became a considerable industry in Paris and some other centres. Types of ivories included small devotional [[polyptych]]s, [[Virgin and Child from the Sainte-Chapelle|single figures, especially of the Virgin]], mirror-cases, combs, and [[Casket with Scenes of Romances (Walters 71264)|elaborate caskets with scenes from Romances]], used as engagement presents.<ref>Calkins, 193–98.</ref>  The very wealthy collected extravagantly elaborate jewelled and enamelled metalwork, both secular and religious, like the [[Duc de Berry]]'s [[Holy Thorn Reliquary]], until they ran short of money, when they were melted down again for cash.<ref>Cherry, 25–48; Henderson, 134–41.</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Chartres2006 077.jpg|West portal of [[Chartres Cathedral]] ({{circa|1145}})
File:Chartres cathedral 023 martyrs S TTaylor.JPG|South portal of [[Chartres Cathedral]] ({{circa|1215}}–1220)
File:Reims6.jpg|West portal at [[Reims Cathedral]], [[Annunciation]] group
File:Pisa.Baptistery.pulpit02.jpg|[[Nicola Pisano]], ''Nativity'' and ''[[Adoration of the Magi]]'' from the [[Pulpit in the Pisa Baptistery]]
File:Bamberger Dom-Bamberger Reiter.JPG|The [[Bamberg Horseman]] 1237, near life-size stone [[equestrian statue]], the first of this kind since [[antiquities|antiquity]].
File:French - Casket with Scenes of Romances - Walters 71264 - Top.jpg|Lid of the [[Casket with Scenes of Romances (Walters 71264)|Walters Casket]], with the ''Siege of the Castle of Love'' at left, and [[jousting]]. Paris, 1330–1350
File:Siege castle love Louvre OA6933.jpg|''Siege of the Castle of Love'' on a mirror-case in the [[Musée du Louvre|Louvre]], 1350–1370; the ladies are losing.
File:Pietà Naumburg Cathedral 01a.jpg|Central German [[Pietà]], 1330–1340
File:Dijon mosesbrunnen4.jpg|[[Claus Sluter]], [[David (biblical king)|David]] and a [[prophet]] from the ''Well of Moses''
File:Holy Thorn Reliquary base.jpg|Base of the [[Holy Thorn Reliquary]], a ''Resurrection of the Dead'' in gold, enamel and gems
File:English - Resurrection - Walters 27308.jpg|Section of a panelled altarpiece with ''[[Resurrection of Christ]]'', English, 1450–1490, [[Nottingham alabaster]] with remains of colour
File:Rothenburg ob der Tauber 2011 St Jakob 002.JPG|Detail of the [[Last Supper]] from [[Tilman Riemenschneider]]'s ''Altar of the Holy Blood'', 1501–1505, [[Rothenburg ob der Tauber]], [[Bavaria]]
</gallery>