Editing Reformation (section)

==Consolidation==

===Princely Reformation in Germany===

[[File:Sack of Rome 1527.jpeg|thumb|right|alt=A man is falling from ladder at a tower with a city burning at the background|[[Sack of Rome (1527)|Sack of Rome]] in 1527 by [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Charles V]]'s troops (1555) on a woodcut by [[Maarten van Heemskerck]]]]

The Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights [[Albert, Duke of Prussia|Albert of Brandenburg-Ansbach]] ({{reign|1510|1525}}) was the first prince to formally abandon Catholicism. The [[Teutonic Order]] held [[Royal Prussia]] in [[fief]] of Poland. After defeats in a [[Polish–Teutonic War (1519–1521)|war against]] Poland and Lithuania demoralised the Knights, Albert transformed the region into the hereditary [[Duchy of Prussia]] in April 1525. As the secularisation of Prussia represented an open rebellion against Catholicism, it was followed by the establishment of the first Evangelical [[state Church|state church]].{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=158}} In August, Albert's brothers, [[Casimir, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach|Casimir]] ({{reign|1515|1527}}) and [[George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|George]] ({{reign|1536|1543}}) instructed the priests in [[Principality of Bayreuth|Brandenburg-Kulmbach]] and [[Principality of Ansbach|Brandenburg-Ansbach]] to pray the doctrine of justification by faith alone.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=256–257}} The Reformation was officially introduced in Electoral Saxony under [[John, Elector of Saxony|John the Constant]] ({{reign|1525|1532}}) on Christmas Day 1525.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=271–272}} Electoral Saxony's conversion facilitated the adoption of the Reformation in smaller German states, such as [[County of Mansfeld|Mansfeld]] and [[Landgraviate of Hessen|Hessen]].{{sfn|Cantoni|2012|p=524}}{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=273}} Philip of Hessen founded the [[University of Marburg|first Evangelical university]] at his capital [[Marburg]] in 1527.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=159}}

At the [[Diet of Speyer (1526)|Diet of Speyer]] in 1526, the German princes agreed that they would "live, govern, and act in such a way as everyone trusted to justify before God and the Imperial Majesty".{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=219}} In practice, they sanctioned the principle {{lang|la|[[cuius regio, eius religio]]}} ('whose realm, their religion'), acknowledging the princes' right to determine their subjects' religious affiliation.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=161}} Fully occupied with the [[War of the League of Cognac]] against France and its Italian allies, Emperor Charles had appointed his brother [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I, Archduke of Austria]] ({{reign|1521|1564}}) to represent him in Germany. They both opposed the compromise, but Ferdinand was brought into succession struggles in Bohemia and Hungary after their brother-in-law King Louis died in the [[Battle of Mohács]]. In 1527, Charles's mutinous{{sfn|Collinson|2005|p=92}} troops [[Sack of Rome (1527)|sacked Rome]] and took [[Pope Clement VII]] ({{reign|1523|1534}}) under custody. Luther stated that "Christ reigns in such a way that the emperor who persecutes Luther for the pope is forced to destroy the pope for Luther".{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=219}}

After his experiences with radical communities, Luther no more wrote of the congregations' right to elect their ministers (or [[pastor]]s). Instead, he expected that princes acting as "emergency bishops" would prevent the disintegration of the Church.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=161}} Close cooperation between clerics and princely officials at church visitations paved the way for the establishment of the new church system.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=220}} In Electoral Saxony, princely decrees enacted the Evangelical ideas.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=272}} Liturgy was simplified, the church courts' jurisdiction over secular cases was abolished, and state authorities took control of church property.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=220}} The Evangelical equivalent to bishop was created with the appointment of a former Catholic priest [[Johannes Bugenhagen]] (d. 1558) as [[Superintendent (Christianity)|superintendent]] in 1533.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=272}} The church visitations convinced Luther that the villagers' knowledge of the Christian faith was imperfect.{{refn|group=note|Many of the believers could not cite the [[Ten Commandments]], the [[Apostles' Creed]], or the [[Lord's Prayer]].{{sfn|Stayer|2006|p=141}}}} To deal with the situation, he completed two [[cathecism]]s—the ''[[Luther's Large Catechism|Large Catechism]]'' for the education of priests, and the ''[[Luther's Small Catechism|Small Catechism]]'' for children.{{sfn|Stayer|2006|p=141}} Records from Brandenburg-Ansbach indicates that Evangelical pastors often attacked traditional communal activities such as church fairs and [[Spinning bee#In other countries|spinning bees]] for debauchery.{{sfn|Stayer|2006|p=142}}

{{Quote box
 |title     = Evangelical Imperial Estates on their protestation at the Diet of Speyer 
 |quote     = "In matters concerning God's honor and our soul's salvation everyone must stand before God and answer by himself, nobody can excuse himself in that place by the actions of decisions of others whether they be a minority or majority." 
 |author    = Five imperial princes and representatives of fourteen imperial cities
 |source    = ''[[Protestation at Speyer]]'' (1529){{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=220}}
 |align     = right
 |width     = 25%
 |bgcolor   = #F5FAFF
 |title_bg  = #CEE0F2
 |qalign    = left
 |salign    = right
 }}

Taking advantage of Emperor Charles' victories in Italy, {{nowrap|Ferdinand I}} achieved the reinforcement of the imperial ban against Luther at the [[Diet of Speyer (1529)|Diet of Speyer]] in 1529. In response, five imperial princes and fourteen imperial cities{{refn|group=note|The protestation was signed by John the Constant, Philip the Magnanimous, George of Brandenburg-Ansbach, [[Wolfgang, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen]] ({{reign|1508|1566}}), and [[Ernest I, Duke of Brunswick]] ({{reign|1527|1546}}), and the delegates of Strasbourg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Constance, [[Lindau]], [[Memmingen]], [[Kempten]], [[Nördlingen]], [[Heilbronn]], [[Reutlingen]], [[Isny im Allgäu]], St. Gallen, Weissenburg (now [[Wissembourg]], France), and [[Windesheim, Germany|Windesheim]] at Speyer.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=221}}}} presented a formal {{lang|la|[[Protestation at Speyer|protestatio]]}}. They were mocked as "Protestants", and this appellation would be quickly applied to all followers of the new theologies.{{refn|group=note|Although not unusual, the use of the appelation "Protestant" when describing events before 1529 is anachronistic.{{sfn|McGrath|2021|p=4}}}}{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|pp=220–221}} To promote Protestant unity, Philip the Magnanimous [[Marburg Colloquy|organised a colloquy]] (or theological debate) between Luther, Melanchton, Zwingli and Oecolampadius at Marburg early in October 1529,{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=168}} but they could not coin a common formula on the Eucharist.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=192}} During the discussion, Luther remarked that "Our spirit has nothing in common with your spirit", expressing the rift between the two mainstream versions of the Reformation. Zwingli's followers started to call themselves the "[[Reformed Church|Reformed]]", as they regarded themselves as the true reformers.{{sfn|Eire|2022|p=95}}

===Stalemate in Switzerland===

{{Further|First War of Kappel|Second War of Kappel}}
{{See also|Old Swiss Confederacy}}

In 1526, the villagers of the autonomous [[Graubünden]] region in [[Old Swiss Confederacy|Switzerland]] agreed that each village could freely choose between Protestantism and Catholicism, setting a precedent for the coexistence of the two denominations in the same jurisdiction.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=160}} Religious affiliation in the Mandated Territories (lands jointly administered by the Swiss cantons) became the subject of much controversy between Protestant and Catholic cantons. The Protestant cantons concluded a military alliance early in 1529, the Catholic cantons in April.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=170}}{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=225}} After a bloodless [[First War of Kappel|armed conflict]], the Mandated communities were granted the right to choose between the two religions by a majority vote of the male citizens. Zwingli began an intensive proselityzing campaign which led to the conversion of most Mandated communities to Protestantism. He set up a council of clergymen and lay delegates for church administration, thus creating the forerunners of [[Presbytery (church polity)|presbyteries]].{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=171}} Zürich imposed an economic blockade on the Catholic cantons but the Catholics [[Second War of Kappel|routed]] Zürich's army in 1531. The Catholics' victory stopped the Protestant expansion in Switzerland.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=225}}{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=172}} 

Zwingli was killed in the battlefield, and succeeded by a former monk [[Heinrich Bullinger]] (d. 1575) in Zürich. Bullinger developed Zwingli's Eucharistic formula in an attempt to reach a compromise with Luther, saying that the faithful made spiritual contact with God during the commemorative ceremony.{{refn|group=note|Bullinger stated that "Believers ... bring Christ to the Supper in their hearts; they do not receive him in the Supper."{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=180}}}}{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=173–174}}

===''Schleitheim Articles''===

[[File:Titelseite Schleitheimer Artikel.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A page with printed text|Title page of the ''[[Schleitheim Confession|Schleitheim Articles]]'' passed at the pacifist Anabaptists' assembly in 1527]]

The historian [[Carter Lindberg]] states that the "Peasants' War was a formative experience for many leaders of Anabaptism".{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=204}} [[Hans Hut]] (d. 1527) continued Müntzer's apocalyticism but others rejected all forms of violence.{{sfn|Stayer|2006|p=138}} 

The pacifist [[Michael Sattler]] (d. 1527) took the chair at an Anabaptist assembly at [[Schleitheim]] in February 1527. Here the participants adopted an anti-militarist program now known as the ''[[Schleitheim Confession|Schleitheim Articles]]''. The document ordered the believers' separation from the evil world, and prohibited oath-taking, bearing of arms and holding of civic offices. Facing Ottoman expansionism, the Austrian authorities considered this pacifism as a direct threat to their country's defense. Sattler was quickly captured and executed. During his trial, he stated that "If the Turks should come, we ought not to resist them. For [[Matthew 5:21|it is written:]] Thou shalt not kill."{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|pp=204–207}}{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=328}}

Total segregation was alien to Hübmaier who tried to achieve a peaceful coexistence with non-Anabaptists.{{sfn|Collinson|2005|p=70}} Expelled from Zürich, he settled in the [[Margraviate of Moravia|Moravian]] domains of Count Leonhard von Liechtenstein at Nikolsburg (now [[Mikulov]], Czech Republic). He baptised infants on the parents' request for which hard-line Anabaptists regarded him as an evil compromiser. He was sentenced to death and burned at the stake for heresy on {{nowrap|Ferdinand I}}'s orders. His execution inaugurated a period of intensive purge against rebaptisers. His followers relocated to Austerlitz (now [[Slavkov u Brna]], Czech Republic) where refugees from Tyrol joined them. After the Tyrolian [[Jakob Hutter]] (d. 1536) assumed the leadership of the community, they began to held their goods in common. The Bohemian Brethren symphatised with the [[Hutterites]] which facilitated their survival in Moravia.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=161–165}}

===Confessions===
[[File:Rijksdag van Augsburg, 1530 Ware ende eygenlycke afbeeldinghe van de hooch aensienlycke vergaderinge gehouden int jaer 1530 den 25 juny op den bisschoplycken sael binnen de stadt Augsborch (titel op object), RP-P-OB-46.329.jpg|thumb|[[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]] receives the [[Augsburg Confession]], 1530]]
Back in Germany in January 1530, {{nowrap|Charles V}} asked the Protestants to summarize their theology at the following Diet in [[Augsburg]]. As the imperial ban prevented Luther from attending the Diet, Melanchthon completed the task. Melanchthon sharply condemned Anabaptist ideas and adopted a reconciliatory tone towards Catholicism but did not fail to emphasize the most featuring elements of Evangelical theology, such as justification by faith alone. The twenty-eight articles of the ''[[Augsburg Confession]]'' were presented at the Diet on 25 June. Four south German Protestant cities—Strasbourg, Constance, Lindau, and Memmingen—adopted a separate confessional document, the ''[[Tetrapolitan Confession]]'' because they were influenced by Zwingli's Eucharistic theology. On Charles's request, Eck and other Catholic theologians completed a response to the ''Augsburg Confession'', called {{lang|la|[[Confutatio Augustana|Confutatio]]}} ('refutation'). Charles ordered the Evangelical theologians to admit that their argumentation had been completely refuted. Instead, Melanchthon wrote a detailed explanation for the Evangelical articles of faith, known as the ''[[Apology of the Augsburg Confession]]''.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=192}}{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|pp=221-224}}

Charles wanted to attack the Protestant princes and cities but the Catholic princes did not support him fearing that his victory would strengthen his power. The Diet passed a law prohibiting further religious innovations and ordering the Protestants to return to Catholicism until 15 April 1531. Luther had previously questioned the princes' right to resist imperial power, but by then he had concluded that a defensive war for religious purposes could be regarded as a [[Just war theory|just war]].{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|pp=224–226}} The [[Schmalkaldic League]]—the Protestant Imperial Estates' defensive alliance—was signed by five princes and fourteen cities on 27 February 1531.{{refn|group=note|Electoral Saxony, Hesse, [[Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg|Brunswick-Lüneburg]], [[Anhalt-Köthen]], [[County of Mansfeld|Mansfeld]], Strasbourg, Ulm, Constance, Reutlingen, Memmingen, Lindau, [[Biberach an der Riß]], Isny im Allgäu, [[Lübeck]], [[Magdeburg]], and [[Bremen]] were the founding members of the Schmalkaldic League.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=352}}}} As a [[Siege of Güns#Campaign of 1532|new Ottoman invasion]] prevented the Habsburgs from wage war against the Protestants, a peace treaty was signed at Nuremberg in July 1532.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=351–352}}

===Royal Reformation in Scandinavia===

{{Main|Reformation in Denmark–Norway and Holstein|Reformation in Sweden}}

Relationship between the papacy and the Scandinavian kingdoms was tense, as both {{nowrap|Frederick I}} of Denmark and Norway, and {{nowrap|Gustav I}} of Sweden appointed their own candidates to vacant episcopal sees.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=275–277}} In 1526, the Danish Parliament prohibited the bishops to seek confirmation from the Holy See, and declared all fees payable for their confirmation as royal revenue.{{sfn|Grell|1998|p=106}} The former [[Knights Hospitaller|Hospitaller knight]] [[Hans Tausen]] (d. 1561) delivered Evangelical sermons in [[Viborg, Denmark|Viborg]] under royal protection from 1526. Four years later, the Parliament rejected the Catholic prelates' demand to condemn Evangelical preaching.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=275–276}} After Frederick's death the bishops and conservative aristocrats prevented the election of his openly Protestant son [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian]] as his successor.{{sfn|Grell|1998|p=111}} [[Christopher, Count of Oldenburg]] ({{reign|1526|1566}}) took up arms on the deposed {{nowrap|Christian II}}'s behalf, but the war known as [[Count's Feud]] ended with the victory of Frederick's son who ordered the arrest of the Catholic bishops. {{nowrap|Christian III}} ({{reign|1534|1559}}) was crowned king by Bugenhagen. Bugenhagen also ordained seven superintendents to lead the [[Church of Denmark]]. Christian declared the ''Augsburg Confession'' as the authoritative articles of faith in 1538,{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=276–277}} but pilgrimages to the most popular shrines continued, and the Eucharistic liturgy kept Catholic elements, such as kneeling.{{sfn|Grell|2006|p=269}}

In the Danish dependencies of Norway and Iceland, the Reformation required vigorous governmental interventions.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=279}} The last Catholic [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Nidaros|Archbishop of Nidaros]] in Norway [[Olav Engelbrektsson]] (d. 1538) was a staunch opponent of the changes, but was succeeded by the Evangelical [[Gjeble Pederssøn]] (d. 1557) as superintendent.{{sfn|Grell|2006|pp=269–270}} In Iceland, [[Jón Arason]], [[Bishop of Hólar]] (d. 1550)—the last Nordic Catholic bishop—took up arms to prevent the Reformation, but he was captured and executed by representatives of royal authority.{{refn|group=note|Bishop Jón was arrested along with two of his sons by a royalist wealthy peasant [[Daði Guðmundsson]] (d. 1563). Their guards executed them because they feared that Catholic Icelanders would come to their bishop's rescue.{{sfn|Hjálmarsson|2012|pp=73–74}}}}{{sfn|Hjálmarsson|2012|pp=71–74}}
 
{{nowrap|Gustav I}} of Sweden appointed the Evangelical preacher [[Laurentius Andreae]] (d. 1552) as his chancellor, and the Evangelical scholar [[Olaus Petri]] (d. 1552) as a minister at Stockholm. Petri translated the Gospels to Swedish. On his advice, Gustav dissolved a Catholic printing house that published popular [[Anti-Protestantism|anti-Protestant]] literature under the auspices of [[Hans Brask]] (d. 1538), [[Bishop of Linköping]]. Gustav also expelled the radical German pastor [[Melchior Hoffman]] (d. {{circa}} 1543) from Sweden for [[Iconoclasm|iconoclastic]] propaganda.{{sfn|Grell|1998|p=124}}{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=277}} The royal treasury needed extra funds to repay the loans borrowed from the Hanseatic League to finance the [[Swedish War of Liberation|war against]] {{nowrap|Christian II}}. Gustav persuaded the [[Riksdag|legislative assembly]] to [[Reduction of Gustav I of Sweden|secularise church property]] by threatening the delegates with his abdication.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=277}} The peasantry remained very cautious about changes in church life. This together with heavy taxation led to uprisings. To appease the rebels, Gustav declared that he had not sanctioned the changes, and dismissed Andreae in 1531, Petri in 1533.{{sfn|Grell|2006|pp=124–125}} He continued the transformation of church life in Sweden and Finland after the Reformation was fully introduced in Denmark. He was assisted by two Evangelical theologians [[Georg Norman]] (d. 1552/1553) and [[Mikael Agricola]] (d. 1557).{{sfn|Grell|1998|p=125}} In 1539, Norman was appointed as supertindent of the [[Church of Sweden]], and Gustav took the title of "Supreme Defender of the Church".{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=278–279}}