Editing Radioactive waste (section)

=== High-level waste ===
{{main|High-level waste}}
High-level waste (HLW) is produced by nuclear reactors and the reprocessing of nuclear fuel.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Pihlak |first1=A. |title=Leaching study of heavy and radioactive elements present in wastes discarded by a uranium extraction and processing facility |url=https://www.osti.gov/etdeweb/servlets/purl/20032295 |access-date=2021-08-05 |website=OSTI}}</ref> The exact definition of HLW differs internationally. After a nuclear fuel rod serves one fuel cycle and is removed from the core, it is considered HLW.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rogner |first1=H. |title=Nuclear Power and Stable Development |journal=Journal of International Affairs |date=2010 |volume=64 |page=149}}</ref> Spent fuel rods contain mostly uranium with [[fission products]] and [[transuranic element]]s generated in the [[reactor core]]. Spent fuel is highly radioactive and often hot. HLW accounts for over 95% of the total radioactivity produced in the process of nuclear [[electricity generation]] but it contributes to less than 1% of volume of all radioactive waste produced in the UK. Overall, the 60-year-long nuclear program in the UK up until 2019 produced 2150&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup> of HLW.<ref name=":0" />

The radioactive waste from spent fuel rods consists primarily of cesium-137 and strontium-90, but it may also include plutonium, which can be considered transuranic waste.<ref name="Backgrounder on Radioactive Waste" /> The half-lives of these radioactive elements can differ quite extremely. Some elements, such as cesium-137 and strontium-90 have half-lives of approximately 30 years. Meanwhile, plutonium has a half-life that can stretch to as long as 24,000 years.<ref name="Backgrounder on Radioactive Waste" />

The amount of HLW worldwide is increasing by about 12,000 [[tonne]]s per year.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/radioactive-wastes-myths-and-realities.aspx |title=Myths and Realities of Radioactive Waste |date=February 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313120210/http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/radioactive-wastes-myths-and-realities.aspx |archive-date=2016-03-13 |access-date=2016-03-13}}</ref> A 1000-[[megawatt]] nuclear power plant produces about 27 tonnes of spent nuclear fuel (unreprocessed) every year.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Nuclear-Fuel-Cycle/Nuclear-Wastes/Radioactive-Waste-Management/ |title=Radioactive Waste Management |publisher=World Nuclear Association |date=July 2015 |access-date=2015-08-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201064831/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Nuclear-Fuel-Cycle/Nuclear-Wastes/Radioactive-Waste-Management/ |archive-date=2016-02-01}}</ref> For comparison, the amount of ash produced by coal power plants in the United States is estimated at 130,000,000 t per year<ref>{{Cite web |last=US Environmental Protection Agency |first=OLEM |date=2014-12-11 |title=Coal Ash Basics |url=https://www.epa.gov/coalash/coal-ash-basics |access-date=2020-03-02 |website=US EPA |language=en-us}}</ref> and fly ash is estimated to release 100 times more radiation than an equivalent nuclear power plant.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/coal-ash-is-more-radioactive-than-nuclear-waste/ |title=Coal Ash Is More Radioactive Than Nuclear Waste |last=Hvistendahl |first=Mara |website=Scientific American |language=en |access-date=2020-03-02}}</ref>

[[File:Spent nuclear fuel in the US.jpg|thumb|upright=2|The current locations across the United States where nuclear waste is stored]]
In 2010, it was estimated that about 250,000 t of nuclear HLW were stored globally.<ref>Geere, Duncan. (2010-09-20) [https://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2010-09/20/into-eternity-nuclear-waste-finland Where do you put 250,000 tonnes of nuclear waste? (Wired UK)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160522232044/http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2010-09/20/into-eternity-nuclear-waste-finland |date=2016-05-22 }}. Wired.co.uk. Retrieved on 2015-12-15.</ref> This does not include amounts that have escaped into the environment from accidents or tests. [[Japan]] is estimated to hold 17,000 t of HLW in storage in 2015.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-07-10/japan-s-17-000-tons-of-nuclear-waste-in-search-of-a-home |work=Bloomberg |first=Yuriy |last=Humber |title=Japan's 17,000 Tons of Nuclear Waste in Search of a Home |date=2015-07-10 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517154128/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-07-10/japan-s-17-000-tons-of-nuclear-waste-in-search-of-a-home |archive-date=2017-05-17}}</ref> As of 2019, the [[United States]] has over 90,000 t of HLW.<ref>{{cite news |date=1 August 2019 |title=What should we do with radioactive nuclear waste? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/aug/01/what-should-we-do-with-radioactive-nuclear-waste |work=The Guardian |location=London, England |language=en-uk}}</ref> HLW have been shipped to other countries to be stored or reprocessed and, in some cases, shipped back as active fuel.

The ongoing controversy over [[High-level radioactive waste management|high-level radioactive waste disposal]] is a major constraint on nuclear power global expansion.<ref name=finlay10 /> Most scientists agree that the main proposed long-term solution is deep geological burial, either in a mine or a deep borehole.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Nuclear-Fuel-Cycle/Nuclear-Wastes/Radioactive-Waste-Management/ |title=Radioactive Waste Management &#124; Nuclear Waste Disposal |date=July 2015 |publisher=World Nuclear Association |access-date=2015-08-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201064831/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Nuclear-Fuel-Cycle/Nuclear-Wastes/Radioactive-Waste-Management/ |archive-date=2016-02-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/presidential-commission-seeks-volunteers-to-store-nuclear-waste/ |title=Presidential Commission Seeks Volunteers to Store U.S. Nuclear Waste |author=Biello, David |date=Jul 29, 2011 |work=Scientific American |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226154256/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/presidential-commission-seeks-volunteers-to-store-nuclear-waste/ |archive-date=2014-02-26}}</ref> As of 2019, no dedicated civilian high-level nuclear waste site is operational<ref name=finlay10>{{cite web |url=http://acuns.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/NuclearEnergyFuture.pdf |title=Nuclear Energy to 2030 and its Implications for Safety, Security and Nonproliferation: Overview |author=Findlay, Trevor |year=2010 |work=Nuclear energy futures project |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307175133/http://acuns.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/NuclearEnergyFuture.pdf |archive-date=2014-03-07 |access-date=2015-08-10}}</ref> as small amounts of HLW did not justify the investment in the past. Finland is in the advanced stage of the construction of the [[Onkalo spent nuclear fuel repository]], which is planned to open in 2025 at 400–450 m depth. France is in the planning phase for a 500 m deep Cigeo facility in Bure. Sweden is planning a site in [[Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant|Forsmark]]. Canada plans a 680 m deep facility near Lake Huron in Ontario. The Republic of Korea plans to open a site around 2028.<ref name=":0" /> The site in Sweden enjoys 80% support from local residents as of 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Belgium |first=Central Office, NucNet a s b l, Brussels |date=23 January 2018 |title=Sweden / 'More Than 80%' Approve Of SKB's Spent Fuel Repository Plans |url=https://www.nucnet.org/news/more-than-80-approve-of-skb-s-spent-fuel-repository-plans-5-3-2020 |access-date=2020-05-08 |website=The Independent Global Nuclear News Agency}}</ref>

The [[Morris Operation]] in [[Grundy County, Illinois]], is currently the only ''de facto'' high-level radioactive waste storage site in the United States.