Editing Negotiation (section)

== Emotion ==
<!-- This sub section is linked from emotion, dispositional affectivity, anger, Group Emotion etc. -->
[[Emotion]]s play an important part in the negotiation process, although it is only in recent years that their effect is being studied. Emotions have the potential to play either a positive or negative role in negotiation. During negotiations, the decision as to whether or not to settle rests in part on emotional factors. Negative emotions can cause intense and even irrational behavior and can cause conflicts to escalate and negotiations to break down, but may be instrumental in attaining concessions. On the other hand, positive emotions often facilitate reaching an agreement and help to maximize joint gains, but can also be instrumental in attaining concessions. Positive and negative discrete emotions can be strategically displayed to influence task and relational outcomes<ref name="Kopelman, Rosette, & Thompson, 2006">Kopelman, S.; Rosette, A.; and Thompson, L. (2006). "The three faces of eve: Strategic displays of positive neutral and negative emotions in negotiations". ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes'' (OBHDP), 99 (1), 81–101.</ref> and may play out differently across cultural boundaries.<ref name="Kopelman & Rosette 2008">Kopelman, S. and Rosette, A. S. (2008). "Cultural variation in response to strategic display of emotions in negotiations". Special Issue on Emotion and Negotiation in ''Group Decision and Negotiation'' (''GDN''), 17 (1) 65–77.</ref>

=== Affect effect ===
[[Dispositional affect|Dispositions for effect]]s affect various stages of negotiation: which strategies to use, which strategies are chosen,<ref name="Forgas 1998">{{cite journal | last1 = Forgas | first1 = J. P. | year = 1998 | title = On feeling good and getting your way: Mood effects on negotiator cognition and behavior | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 74 | issue = 3| pages = 565–577 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.565 | pmid=11407408}}</ref> the way the other party and their intentions are perceived,<ref name="Van Kleef 2006">{{cite journal | last1 = Van Kleef | first1 = G.A. | last2 = De Dreu | first2 = C.K.W. | last3 = Manstead | first3 = A.S.R. | year = 2006 | title = Supplication and Appeasement in Conflict and Negotiation: The Interpersonal Effects of Disappointment, Worry, Guilt, and Regret | url = http://psych.cf.ac.uk/home2/manstead/Van%20Kleef%20et%20al.%20%282006b%29.pdf| journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 91 | issue = 1| pages = 124–142 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.124 | pmid=16834484| s2cid = 11970038 }}</ref> their willingness to reach an agreement, and the final negotiated outcomes.<ref name="Butt 2005">{{cite journal | last1 = Butt | first1 = AN | last2 = Choi | first2 = JN | last3 = Jaeger | first3 = A | year = 2005 | title = The effects of self-emotion, counterpart emotion, and counterpart behavior on negotiator behavior: a comparison of individual-level and dyad-level dynamics | journal = Journal of Organizational Behavior | volume = 26 | issue = 6| pages = 681–704 | doi=10.1002/job.328}}</ref> [[Positive affectivity]] (PA) and [[negative affectivity]] (NA) of one or more of the negotiating sides can lead to very different outcomes.

=== Positive affect ===
Even before the negotiation process starts, people in a positive mood have more confidence,<ref name="Kramer 1993">{{cite journal | last1 = Kramer | first1 = R. M. | last2 = Newton | first2 = E. | last3 = Pommerenke | first3 = P. L. | year = 1993 | title = Self-enhancement biases and negotiator judgment: Effects of self-esteem and mood | journal = Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes | volume = 56 | pages = 110–133 | doi=10.1006/obhd.1993.1047| doi-access = free }}</ref> and higher tendencies to plan to use a cooperative strategy.<ref name="Forgas 1998"/> During the negotiation, negotiators who are in a positive mood tend to enjoy the interaction more, show less contentious behavior, use less aggressive tactics,<ref name="Maiese">Maiese, Michelle [http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/emotion/ "Emotions"] ''Beyond Intractability''. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: July 2005 downloaded: 30 August 2007</ref> and more cooperative strategies.<ref name="Forgas 1998"/> This, in turn, increases the likelihood that parties will reach their instrumental goals, and enhance the ability to find integrative gains.<ref name="Carnevale 1986">{{cite journal | last1 = Carnevale | first1 = P. J. D. | last2 = Isen | first2 = A. M. | year = 1986 | title = The influence of positive affect and visual access on the discovery of integrative solutions in bilateral negotiation | journal = Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes | volume = 37 | pages = 1–13 | doi=10.1016/0749-5978(86)90041-5| hdl = 2027.42/26263 | url = https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/26263/1/0000344.pdf | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Indeed, compared with negotiators with negative or natural affectivity, negotiators with positive affectivity reached more agreements and tended to honor those agreements more.<ref name="Forgas 1998"/> Those favorable outcomes are due to better [[decision making|decision-making]] processes, such as flexible thinking, creative [[problem solving|problem-solving]], respect for others' perspectives, willingness to take risks, and higher confidence.<ref name="Barry 2004">Barry, B.; Fulmer, I. S.; & Van Kleef, G. A. (2004) "I laughed, I cried, I settled: The role of emotion in negotiation". In M. J. Gelfand & J. M. Brett (Eds.), ''The handbook of negotiation and culture'' (pp. 71–94). Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.</ref> The post-negotiation positive effect has beneficial consequences as well. It increases satisfaction with the achieved outcome and influences one's desire for future interactions.<ref name="Barry 2004"/> The PA aroused by reaching an agreement facilitates the dyadic relationship, which brings commitment that sets the stage for subsequent interactions.<ref name="Barry 2004"/><br /> PA also has its drawbacks: it distorts the perception of self-performance, such that performance is judged to be relatively better than it is.<ref name="Kramer 1993"/> Thus, studies involving self-reports on achieved outcomes might be biased.

=== Negative affect ===
[[Negative affect]] has detrimental effects on various stages in the negotiation process. Although various negative emotions affect negotiation outcomes, by far the most researched is [[anger]]. Angry negotiators plan to use more competitive strategies and cooperate less, even before the negotiation starts.<ref name="Forgas 1998"/> These competitive strategies are related to reduced joint outcomes.
During negotiations, anger disrupts the process by reducing the level of trust, clouding parties' judgment, narrowing parties' focus of attention, and changing their central goal from reaching an agreement to retaliating against the other side.<ref name="Maiese"/> Angry negotiators pay less attention to the opponent's interests and are less accurate in judging their interests, thus achieving lower joint gains.<ref name="Allred 1997">{{cite journal | last1 = Allred | first1 = K. G. | last2 = Mallozzi | first2 = J. S. | last3 = Matsui | first3 = F. | last4 = Raia | first4 = C. P. | year = 1997 | title = The influence of anger and compassion on negotiation performance | journal = Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes | volume = 70 | issue = 3| pages = 175–187 | doi=10.1006/obhd.1997.2705| doi-access = free }}</ref> Moreover, because anger makes negotiators more self-centered in their preferences, it increases the likelihood that they will reject profitable offers.<ref name="Maiese"/> Opponents who get angry (or cry, or otherwise lose control) are more likely to make errors.<ref name="Churchman 1993"/>
Anger does not help achieve negotiation goals either: it reduces joint gains<ref name="Forgas 1998"/> and does not boost personal gains, as angry negotiators do not succeed.<ref name="Allred 1997"/> Moreover, negative emotions lead to acceptance of settlements that are not in a positive [[Consumption set|utility function]] but rather have a negative [[utility]].<ref name="Davidson 1999">{{cite journal | last1 = Davidson | first1 = M. N. | last2 = Greenhalgh | first2 = L. | year = 1999 | title = The role of emotion in negotiation: The impact of anger and race | journal = Research on Negotiation in Organizations | volume = 7 | pages = 3–26 }}</ref> However, the expression of negative emotions during negotiation can sometimes be beneficial: legitimately expressed anger can be an effective way to show one's commitment, sincerity, and needs.<ref name="Maiese"/> Moreover, although NA reduces gains in integrative tasks, it is a better strategy than PA in distributive tasks (such as [[zero-sum]]).<ref name="Barry 2004"/> In his work on negative affect arousal and white noise, Seidner found support for the existence of a negative affect arousal mechanism through observations regarding the devaluation of speakers from other ethnic origins. Negotiation may be negatively affected, in turn, by submerged hostility toward an ethnic or gender group.<ref name=Seid1991>{{cite book | last = Seidner | first = Stanley S. | date = 1991 | title =Negative Affect Arousal Reactions from Mexican and Puerto Rican Respondents | location= Washington, D.C.| publisher = ERIC| url= http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED346711&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED346711}}</ref>

=== Conditions for emotion affect ===
Research indicates that a negotiator's emotions do not necessarily affect the negotiation process.
Albarracın et al. (2003) suggested that there are two conditions for emotional affect, both related to the ability (presence of environmental or cognitive disturbances) and the motivation:

# Identification of the effect: requires high motivation, high ability, or both.
# The determination that the effect is relevant and important for the judgment: requires that either the motivation, the ability, or both are low.

According to this model, emotions affect negotiations only when one is high and the other is low. When both ability and motivation are low, the effect is identified, and when both are high the effect is identified but discounted as irrelevant to judgment.<ref name="Albarracın 2003">{{cite journal | last1 = Albarracin | first1 = D. | last2 = Kumkale | first2 = G.T. | year = 2003 | title = Affect as Information in Persuasion: A Model of Affect Identification and Discounting | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 84 | issue = 3| pages = 453–469 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.84.3.453| pmid = 12635909 | pmc = 4797933 }}</ref>
A possible implication of this model is, for example, that the positive effects of PA have on negotiations (as described above) are seen only when either motivation or ability is low.

=== Effect of partner's emotions ===
Most studies on emotion in negotiations focus on the effect of the negotiator's own emotions on the process. However, what the other party feels might be just as important, as [[group emotion]]s are known to affect processes both at the group and the personal levels.
When it comes to negotiations, trust in the other party is a necessary condition for its emotion to effect,<ref name="Van Kleef 2006"/> and visibility enhances the effect.<ref name="Carnevale 1986"/>
Emotions contribute to negotiation processes by signaling what one feels and thinks and can thus prevent the other party from engaging in destructive behaviors and indicate what steps should be taken next: PA signals to keep in the same way, while NA points out that mental or behavioral adjustments are needed.<ref name="Barry 2004"/><br />
Partner's emotions can have two basic effects on the negotiator's emotions and behavior: mimetic/ reciprocal or complementary.<ref name="Butt 2005"/> For example, [[disappointment]] or [[sadness]] might lead to [[compassion]] and more cooperation.<ref name="Barry 2004"/> In a study by Butt et al. (2005) that simulated real multi-phase negotiation, most people reacted to the partner's emotions in a reciprocal, rather than complementary, manner. Specific emotions were found to have different effects on the opponent's feelings and are strategies chosen:

* '''Anger''' caused the opponents to place lower demands and to concede more in a [[Zero-sum game|zero-sum]] negotiation, but also to evaluate the negotiation less favorably.<ref name="Van Kleef 2004">{{cite journal | last1 = Van Kleef | first1 = G. A. | last2 = De Dreu | first2 = C. K. W. | last3 = Manstead | first3 = A. S. R. | year = 2004 | title = The interpersonal effects of anger and happiness in negotiations | url = http://home.medewerker.uva.nl/g.a.vankleef/bestanden/Van%20Kleef%20et%20al.%20(2004a%20JPSP).pdf | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 86 | issue = 1 | pages = 57–76 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.57 | pmid = 14717628 | access-date = 2 September 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070926065715/http://home.medewerker.uva.nl/g.a.vankleef/bestanden/Van%20Kleef%20et%20al.%20(2004a%20JPSP).pdf | archive-date = 26 September 2007 | url-status = dead }}</ref> It provoked both dominating and yielding behaviors of the opponent.<ref name="Butt 2005"/>
* '''[[Pride]]''' led to more integrative and compromise strategies by the partner.<ref name="Butt 2005"/>
* '''[[Guilt (emotion)|Guilt]]''' or '''[[Regret (emotion)|regret]]''' expressed by the negotiator led to a better impression of him by the opponent, however, it also led the opponent to place higher demands.<ref name="Van Kleef 2006"/> On the other hand, personal guilt was related to more satisfaction with what one achieved.<ref name="Barry 2004"/>
* '''[[Worry]]''' or '''disappointment''' left a bad impression on the opponent but led to relatively lower demands by the opponent.<ref name="Van Kleef 2006"/>

=== Dealing with emotions ===
* '''Make emotions explicit and validate''' – Taking a more proactive approach in discussing one's emotions can allow for a negotiation to focus on the problem itself, rather than any unexpressed feelings. It is important to allow both parties to share their emotions.
* '''Allow time to let off steam''' – It is possible that one party may feel angry or frustrated at some point during the negotiation. Rather than try to avoid discussing those feelings, allow the individual to talk it out. Sitting and listening, without providing too much feedback on the substance itself, can offer enough support for the person to feel better. Once the grievances are released, it may become easier to negotiate.
* '''Symbolic gestures''' – Consider that an [[Apology (act)|apology]], or any other simple act, may be one of the most effective and low-cost means to reduce any negative emotions between parties.<ref name=":1" />
* '''Empathy''' – In every negotiation, emotions will play a major role in determining what is said. It is possible to overreact and misinterpret what the other party says by projecting assumptions. To avoid miscommunication and build a collaborative environment, it is important to shift the focus to the other party and be fully present with them, listening without judgment instead of acting in self-interest and focusing on one's own needs and fears. To increase one's chances of reaching a deal that works for both parties, one needs to be focused on the other party, their emotions, their interests, and their worries in order to give them what they want. When the other party feels heard and acknowledged, barriers to communication fall, and reaching a consensus is much more likely to happen.

=== Problems with laboratory studies ===
Negotiation is a complex [[Social interaction|interaction]]. Capturing all its complexity is a very difficult task, let alone isolating and controlling only certain aspects of it. For this reason, most negotiation studies are done under [[laboratory]] conditions and focus only on some aspects. Although such studies have their advantages, they do have major drawbacks when studying emotions:

* Emotions in laboratory studies are usually manipulated and are therefore relatively 'cold' (not intense). Although those 'cold' emotions might be enough to show effects, they are qualitatively different from the 'hot' emotions often experienced during negotiations.<ref name="Bazerman 2000">{{cite journal | last1 = Bazerman | first1 = M. H. | last2 = Curhan | first2 = J. R. | last3 = Moore | first3 = D. A. | last4 = Valley | first4 = K. L. | year = 2000 | title = Negotiation | journal = Annual Review of Psychology | volume = 51 | pages = 279–314 | doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.279| pmid = 10751973 }}</ref>
* In real life, people select which negotiations to enter, which affects emotional commitment, motivation, and interests, but this is not the case in lab studies.<ref name="Barry 2004"/>
* Laboratory studies tend to focus on relatively few well-defined emotions. Real-life scenarios provoke a much wider scale of emotions.<ref name="Barry 2004"/>
* Coding the emotions has a double catch: if done by a third side, some emotions might not be detected as the negotiator sublimates them for strategic reasons. Self-report measures might overcome this, but they are usually filled only before or after the process, and if filled during the process might interfere with it.<ref name="Barry 2004"/>