Editing Nationalism (section)

==== Breakup of Yugoslavia ====
{{Main|Breakup of Yugoslavia}}
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There was a rise in extreme nationalism after the [[Revolutions of 1989]] had triggered the collapse of [[communism]] in the 1990s. That left many people with no identity. The people under communist rule had to integrate, but they now found themselves free to choose. That made long-dormant conflicts rise and create sources of serious conflict.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Berg|first=Steven|date=1993|title=Nationalism Redux: Through the Glass of the Post-Communist States Darkly.|journal=Ethnic Conflicts WorldWide, Current History|pages=162–166}}</ref> When communism fell in Yugoslavia, serious conflict arose, which led to a rise in extreme nationalism.

In his 1992 article ''Jihad vs. McWorld,'' [[Benjamin Barber]] proposed that the fall of communism would cause large numbers of people to search for unity and that small-scale wars would become common, as groups will attempt to redraw boundaries, identities, cultures and ideologies.<ref name="barber">{{Cite journal |last=Barber |first=Benjamin |date=1992 |title=Jihad vs. McWorld: the two axial principles of our age—tribalism and globalism—clash at every point except one: they may both be threatening to democracy |journal=The Atlantic}}</ref> The fall of communism also allowed for an "us vs. them" mentality to return.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Huntington |first=Samuel |date=1993 |title=The Clash of Civilizations |journal=Foreign Affairs |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=22–49 |doi=10.2307/20045621 |jstor=20045621}}</ref> Governments would become vehicles for social interests, and the country would attempt to form national policies based on the majority culture, religion or ethnicity.<ref name=":0"/> Some newly sprouted democracies had large differences in policies on matters, which ranged from immigration and human rights to trade and commerce.

The academic Steven Berg felt that the root of nationalist conflicts was the demand for autonomy and a separate existence.<ref name=":0"/> That nationalism can give rise to strong emotions, which may lead to a group fighting to survive, especially as after the fall of communism, political boundaries did not match ethnic boundaries.<ref name=":0"/> Serious conflicts often arose and escalated very easily, as individuals and groups acted upon their beliefs and caused death and destruction.<ref name=":0"/> When that happens, states unable to contain the conflict run the risk of slowing their progress at democratization.

Yugoslavia was established after the First World War and joined three acknowledged ethnic groups: [[Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes|Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]]. The national census numbers from 1971 to 1981 measured an increase from 1.3% to 5.4% in the population that ethnically identified itself as [[Yugoslavs]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=Steven |date=2004 |title=Why Yugoslavia Fell Apart |journal=Current History |volume=92 |issue=577 |pages=357–363 |s2cid=151283265 |doi=10.1525/curh.1993.92.577.357}}</ref> That meant that the country, almost as a whole, was divided by distinctive religious, ethnic and national loyalties after nearly 50 years.

Nationalist separatism of Croatia and Slovenia from the rest of Yugoslavia has basis in historical imperialist conquests of the region ([[Austria-Hungary]] and [[Ottoman Empire]]) and existence within separate spheres of religious, cultural and industrial influence – Catholicism, Protenstantism, [[Central Europe]]an cultural orientation in the northwest, versus Orthodoxy, Islam and [[Orientalism]] in the southeast. Croatia and Slovenia were subsequently more economically and industrially advanced and remained as such throughout existence of both forms of Yugoslavia.<ref name=":2" />

In the 1970s, the leadership of the separate territories in Yugoslavia protected only territorial interests, at the expense of other territories. In Croatia, there was almost a split within the territory between Serbs and Croats so that any political decision would kindle unrest, and tensions could cross adjacent territories: Bosnia and Herzegovina.<ref name=":3" /> Bosnia had no group with a majority; Muslim, Serb, Croat, and Yugoslavs stopped leadership from advancing here as well. Political organizations were not able to deal successfully with such diverse nationalisms. Within the territories, leaderships would not compromise. To do so would create a winner in one ethnic group and a loser in another and raise the possibility of a serious conflict. That strengthened the political stance promoting ethnic identities and caused intense and divided political leadership within Yugoslavia.

[[File:Cold War border changes.png|thumb|[[List of national border changes since World War I|Changes in national boundaries]] in post-Soviet and post-Yugoslav states after the [[revolutions of 1989]] were followed by a resurgence of nationalism.]]
In the 1980s, Yugoslavia began to break into fragments.<ref name=":1" /> Economic conditions within Yugoslavia were deteriorating. Conflict in the disputed territories was stimulated by the rise in mass nationalism and ethnic hostilities.<ref name=":3" /> The per capita income of people in the northwestern territory, encompassing Croatia and Slovenia, was several times higher than that of the southern territory. That, combined with escalating violence from ethnic Albanians and Serbs in Kosovo, intensified economic conditions.<ref name=":3" /> The violence greatly contributed to the rise of extreme nationalism of Serbs in Serbia and the rest of Yugoslavia. The ongoing conflict in Kosovo was propagandized by a communist Serb, [[Slobodan Milošević]], to increase Serb nationalism further. As mentioned, that nationalism gave rise to powerful emotions which grew the force of Serbian nationalism by highly nationalist demonstrations in Vojvodina, Serbia, Montenegro, and Kosovo. Serbian nationalism was so high that Slobodan Milošević ousted leaders in Vojvodina and Montenegro, repressed Albanians within Kosovo and eventually controlled four of the eight regions/territories.<ref name=":3" /> Slovenia, one of the four regions not under communist control, favoured a democratic state.

In Slovenia, fear was mounting because Milošević would use the militia to suppress the country, as had occurred in Kosovo.<ref name=":3" /> Half of Yugoslavia wanted to be democratic, the other wanted a new nationalist authoritarian regime. In fall of 1989, tensions came to a head, and Slovenia asserted its political and economic independence from Yugoslavia and seceded. In January 1990, there was a total break with Serbia at the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, an institution that had been conceived by Milošević to strengthen unity and later became the backdrop for the fall of communism in Yugoslavia.

In August 1990, a warning to the region was issued when ethnically divided groups attempted to alter the government structure. The republic borders established by the Communist regime in the postwar period were extremely vulnerable to challenges from ethnic communities. Ethnic communities arose because they did not share the identity with everyone within the new post-communist borders,<ref name=":3" /> which threatened the new governments. The same disputes were erupting that were in place prior to Milošević and were compounded by actions from his regime.

Also, within the territory, the Croats and the Serbs were in direct competition for control of government. Elections were held and increased potential conflicts between Serbian and Croat nationalism. Serbia wanted to be separate and to decide its own future based on its own ethnic composition, but that would then give Kosovo encouragement to become independent from Serbia. Albanians in Kosovo were already practically independent from Kosovo, but Serbia did not want to let Kosovo become independent. Albanian nationalists wanted their own territory, but that would require a redrawing of the map and threaten neighboring territories. When communism fell in Yugoslavia, serious conflict arose, which led to the rise in extreme nationalism.

Nationalism again gave rise to powerful emotions, which evoked, in some extreme cases, a willingness to die for what one believed, a fight for the survival of the group.<ref name=":0"/> The end of communism began a long period of conflict and war for the region. For six years, 200,000–500,000 people died in the Bosnian War.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ramet|first=Sabrina|date=1996|title=Eastern Europe's Painful Transition |journal=Current History|volume=95 |issue=599 |pages=97–102|doi=10.1525/curh.1996.95.599.97 |s2cid=249691639 }}</ref> All three major ethnicities in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnian Muslims, Croats, Serbs) suffered at the hands of each other.<ref name=":2" />{{verify source|date=February 2022}} The war garnered assistance from groups, Muslim, Orthodox, and Western Christian, and from state actors, which supplied all sides; Saudi Arabia and Iran supported Bosnia; Russia supported Serbia; Central European and the West, including the US, supported Croatia; and the Pope supported Slovenia and Croatia.