Editing Middle Ages (section)

=== Architecture, art, and music ===
{{further|Medieval architecture|Medieval art|Medieval music}}
[[File:Maria Lach 02.jpg|thumb|The [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] Church of [[Maria Laach Abbey|Maria Laach, Germany]]]]

In the 10th century, the establishment of churches and monasteries led to the development of stone architecture that elaborated vernacular Roman forms, from which the term "Romanesque" was derived. Where available, Roman [[brick]] and stone buildings were recycled for their materials. From the tentative beginnings known as the [[First Romanesque]], the style flourished and spread across Europe in a remarkably homogeneous form. Just before 1000, a great wave of stone churches were being built all over Europe.<ref name=Benton55>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' p. 55</ref> [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] buildings have massive stone walls, openings topped by semi-circular arches, small windows, and, particularly in France, arched stone vaults.<ref name=Adams181>Adams ''History of Western Art'' pp. 181–189</ref> The large [[Portal (architecture)|portal]] with coloured sculpture in [[Relief|high relief]] became a central feature of façades, especially in France, and the [[Capital (architecture)|capitals]] of columns were often carved with narrative scenes of imaginative monsters and animals.<ref name=Benton58to75>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 58–60, 65–66, 73–75</ref> According to art historian [[C. R. Dodwell]], "virtually all the churches in the West were decorated with wall-paintings", of which few survive.<ref name=Dodwell37>Dodwell ''Pictorial Arts of the West'' p. 37</ref> Simultaneous with the development in church architecture, the distinctive European form of the castle was developed and became crucial to politics and warfare.<ref name=Benton295>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 295–299</ref>

Romanesque art, especially metalwork, was at its most sophisticated in [[Mosan art]], in which distinct artistic personalities, including [[Nicholas of Verdun]] (d. 1205), become apparent. An almost [[Ancient Greek art|classical style]] is seen in works such as a [[Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège|font at Liège]],<ref name=Lasko240>Lasko ''Ars Sacra'' pp. 240–250</ref> contrasting with the writhing animals of the exactly contemporary [[Gloucester Candlestick]]. Large illuminated bibles and [[psalter]]s were the typical forms of luxury manuscripts, and wall-painting flourished in churches, often following a scheme with a ''[[Last Judgement]]'' on the west wall, a [[Christ in Majesty]] at the east end, and narrative biblical scenes down the nave, or in the best surviving example, at [[Abbey Church of Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe|Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe]], on the [[barrel-vault]]ed roof.<ref name=Benton91>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 91–92</ref>

[[File:Nef cathédrale Laon.jpg|The [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] interior of [[Laon Cathedral]], France|thumb|left]]

From the early 12th century, French builders developed the [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] style, marked by the use of [[rib vault]]s, [[Ogive|pointed arches]], [[flying buttress]]es, and large [[stained glass]] windows. It was used mainly in churches and cathedrals and continued until the 16th century in much of Europe. Classic examples of Gothic architecture include [[Chartres Cathedral]] and [[Reims Cathedral]] in France, as well as [[Salisbury Cathedral]] in England.<ref name=Adams195>Adams ''History of Western Art'' pp. 195–216</ref> Stained glass became a crucial element in the design of churches, which continued to use extensive wall-paintings, now almost all lost.<ref name=Benton185to271>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 185–190; 269–271</ref>

During this period, the practice of manuscript illumination gradually passed from monasteries to lay workshops, so that according to [[Janetta Benton]] "by 1300 most monks bought their books in shops",<ref name=Benton250>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' p. 250</ref> and the [[book of hours]] developed as a form of devotional book for lay-people. Metalwork remained the most prestigious art form, with [[Limoges enamel]] a popular and relatively affordable option for objects such as reliquaries and crosses.<ref name=Benton245>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 135–139, 245–247</ref> In Italy the innovations of [[Cimabue]] and [[Duccio]], followed by the [[Trecento]] master [[Giotto]] (d. 1337), greatly increased the sophistication and status of [[panel painting]] and [[fresco]].<ref name=Benton264>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 264–278</ref> Increasing prosperity during the 12th century resulted in greater production of secular art; many [[carved ivory]] objects such as gaming-pieces, combs, and small religious figures have survived.<ref name=Benton248>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 248–250</ref>