Editing Lilium (section)

==Culinary uses==
{{anchor|Culinary and herb uses}}

===Chinese cuisine===
Lily bulbs are [[starch]]y and edible as [[root vegetable]]s, though bulbs of some species may be too bitter to eat.{{sfnp|Blasdale|1899|p=21}}

[[Lilium brownii var. viridulum|''Lilium brownii'' var. ''viridulum'']], known as 百合 (''pak hop''; {{zh|t=|p=bǎi hé|c=|s=|l=hundred united|cy=baak hap}}), is one of the most prominent edible lilies in [[China]]. Its bulbs are large in size and not bitter. They were even exported and sold in the [[Chinatown, San Francisco|San Francisco Chinatown]] in the 19th century, available both fresh and dry.{{sfnp|Blasdale|1899|p=21}} A landrace called 龍牙百合 ({{zh|t=|p=lóng yá bǎi hé|c=|s=|l=dragon-tooth lily|cy=}}) mainly cultivated in [[Hunan]] and [[Jiangxi]] is especially renowned for its good-quality bulbs.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.sohu.com/a/337250577_394947|title=【药材辨识】百合，你买对了吗？|author=陈辉|author2=张秋霞|date=2019-08-28|website=搜狐网|publisher=羊城晚报|language=zh|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213024342/http://www.sohu.com/a/337250577_394947|archive-date=2020-02-13|access-date=2020-01-17}}</ref>

''[[Lilium lancifolium|L. lancifolium]]'' ({{zh|t=卷丹|p=juǎn dān|c=|s=|l=reflexed red}}) is widely cultivated in China, especially in [[Yixing]], [[Huzhou]] and [[Longshan County|Longshan]]. Its bulbs are slightly bitter.<ref name=":0" />

[[Lilium davidii|''L. davidii'' var. ''unicolor'']] ({{zh|t=蘭州百合|p=|c=|s=|l=Lanzhou lily}}) is mainly cultivated in [[Lanzhou]] and its bulbs are valued for sweetness.<ref name=":0" />

Other edible Chinese lilies include [[Lilium brownii|''L. brownii'' var. ''brownii'']], [[Lilium davidii|''L. davidii'' var. ''davidii'']], ''[[Lilium concolor|L. concolor]]'', ''[[Lilium pensylvanicum|L. pensylvanicum]]'', ''[[Lilium distichum|L. distichum]]'', [[Lilium martagon|''L. martagon'' var. ''pilosiusculum'']], ''[[Lilium pumilum|L. pumilum]]'', ''[[Lilium rosthornii|L. rosthornii]]'' and [[Lilium speciosum|''L. speciosum'' var. ''gloriosoides'']].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iplant.cn/info/Lilium?t=z|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017163430/http://www.iplant.cn/info/Lilium?t=z|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 17, 2021|title=百合属 Lilium|website=www.iplant.cn|access-date=2020-02-13}}</ref> Researchers have also explored the possibility of using ornamental cultivars as edible lilies.{{Refn|'Batistero' and 'California' among 15 lilies in Beijing,<ref>{{cite web|title=15个百合种和品种的食用性比较研究|url=http://cpfd.cnki.com.cn/Article/CPFDTOTAL-EGYP201310001119.htm|access-date=2014-05-28|archive-date=2014-05-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140529051253/http://cpfd.cnki.com.cn/Article/CPFDTOTAL-EGYP201310001119.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> and 'Prato' and 'Small foreigners' among 13 lilies in Ningbo.<ref>{{cite web|title=不同食用百合品种在宁波地区引种品比试验|url=http://www.nbnky.gov.cn/info.asp?id=5937|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201175455/http://www.nbnky.gov.cn/info.asp?id=5937|archive-date=2014-02-01}}</ref>}}

The dried bulbs are commonly used in the south to flavor soup.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} They may be reconstituted and [[stir frying|stir-fried]], grated and used to thicken [[soup]], or processed to extract starch.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} Their texture and taste draw comparisons with the [[potato]], although the individual bulb scales are much smaller.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}

The commonly marketed "lily" flower buds, called  ''kam cham tsoi'' ({{Lang-zh|cy=gāmjām choi|c=金针菜|s=|t=|p=jīnzhēncài|l=gold needle vegetable}})<ref name="blasdale" /> in [[Chinese cuisine]], are actually from [[daylilies]], ''[[Hemerocallis citrina]]'',<ref>[http://frps.eflora.cn/frps/Hemerocallis%20citrina Hemerocallis citrina] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711010703/http://frps.eflora.cn/frps/Hemerocallis%20citrina|date=2015-07-11}} Flora Republicae Popularis Sinicae</ref> or possibly ''[[Hemerocallis fulva|H. fulva]]''.{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Blasdale cites Bretschneider (1889), but in Bretschneider (1875), "{{URL|1=https://books.google.com/books?id=QwXwHwwtnYYC&pg=PA123|2=Notes on Chinese Mediaeval Travellers to the West}}", p. 123, first gives the Chinese name for ''H. fulva'' as "kïm châm hōa" as according to [[João de Loureiro]], while he himself only recognized its name as "kin huang hua" {{lang|zh|金黃花}} or as {{zh|w=huang-hua ts'ai|t=[黃花菜]|l=yellow-flower vegetable|labels=no}} as they were called by Beijing merchants.}}<ref name="blasdale" /> Flowers of the ''[[Hemerocallis graminea|H. graminea]]'' and ''[[Lilium bulbiferum]]'' were reported to have been eaten as well, but samples provided by the informant were strictly daylilies and did not include ''L. bulbiferum''.{{efn|The informant, Pelham L. Warren, consul at Taiwan was presumably providing imports from China (main port [[Hankou]]) or Japan.}}<ref name="kew-misc1889" />

Lily flowers and bulbs are eaten especially in the summer, for their perceived ability to reduce internal heat.<ref>{{cite web|title=《按照传统既是食品又是中药材的物质目录(2013版)》(征求意见稿).doc |url=http://www.moh.gov.cn/ewebeditor/uploadfile/2013/07/20130712155225821.doc|access-date=2014-01-25|archive-date=2014-02-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222021756/http://www.moh.gov.cn/ewebeditor/uploadfile/2013/07/20130712155225821.doc|url-status=live}}</ref> A 19th century English source reported that "Lily flowers are also said to be efficacious in pulmonary affections, and to have tonic properties".<ref name=kew-misc1889>{{cite journal |title=Lily Flowers and Bulbs Used as Food |journal=Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information |publisher=Royal Gardens, Kew |volume=1889 |number=29 |pages=116–118 |year=1889 |doi=10.2307/4113224 |jstor=4113224 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/127028#page/121/mode/1up |access-date=2020-01-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730131523/http://biodiversitylibrary.org/item/127028#page/121/mode/1up |archive-date=2016-07-30 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Asiatic lily cultivars are also imported from the Netherlands; the seedling bulbs must be imported from the Netherlands every year.<ref>{{cite web|last=蔡|first=月夏|title=食用百合鱗莖有機栽培模式之建立|url=http://hdais.coa.gov.tw/htmlarea_file/web_articles/hdais/3149/1011220_2_4.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202102837/http://hdais.coa.gov.tw/htmlarea_file/web_articles/hdais/3149/1011220_2_4.pdf|archive-date=2014-02-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=首頁 / 為民服務 / 常見問題(FAQ)|url=http://hdais.coa.gov.tw/view.php?catid=3161 |website= Hualien District Agricultural Research and Extension Station | publisher= Council of Agriculture, Executive Yuan |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202102835/http://hdais.coa.gov.tw/view.php?catid=3161 |archive-date=2 February 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=首頁 / 最新消息 / 本場新聞 / 花蓮、宜蘭生產的有機食用百合深受消費者喜愛|url=http://hdais.coa.gov.tw/view.php?catid=3815 |website= Hualien District Agricultural Research and Extension Station | publisher= Council of Agriculture, Executive Yuan |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202102847/http://hdais.coa.gov.tw/view.php?catid=3815|archive-date=2 February 2014 }}</ref>

The parts of ''Lilium'' species which are officially listed as food material in Taiwan are the flower and bulbs of ''[[Lilium lancifolium]]'', [[Lilium brownii var. viridulum|''Lilium brownii'' var. ''viridulum'']], ''[[Lilium pumilum]]'' and ''[[Lilium candidum]]''.<ref>{{cite web|title=可供食品使用原料彙整一覽表|url=https://consumer.fda.gov.tw/Food/Material.aspx?nodeID=160 |website= [[Food and Drug Administration (Taiwan)|Food and Drug Administration]] |access-date=25 January 2014 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140126120155/https://consumer.fda.gov.tw/Food/Material.aspx?nodeID=160 |archive-date=26 January 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Japanese cuisine===
[[File:Yurine donburi.JPG|thumb|Loose scales of lily bulb in a [[donburi]] bowl dish]]
The lily bulb or ''yuri-ne'' is sometimes used in Japanese cuisine.{{efn|"not a common food" ({{interlanguage link|Shizuo Tsuji|ja|辻静雄}}).}}<ref name=tsuji/> It may be most familiar in the present day as an occasional {{nihongo|ingredient|具|gu}} in the [[chawanmushi|chawan-mushi]] (savoury egg custard),<ref name=takekawa&iizuka/> where a few loosened scales of this optional ingredient are found embedded in the "hot pudding" of each serving.<ref name=nipponia/>{{sfnp|Tsuji|2007|pp=214–215}} It could also be used as an ingredient in a clear soup or {{interlanguage link|suimono{{!}}''suimono''|ja|吸物}}.<ref name=kingsbury/><ref name=kawakami/>

The boiled bulb may also be [[sieve|strained]]{{efn|The term {{interlanguage link|uragoshi|ja|裏ごし}} "straining" orthodoxically means using the  "uragoshi-ki", traditionally a sieve with a fine mesh of horse-hair instead of metal wire.}} into [[purée]] for use, as in the sweetened ''kinton'',{{sfnp|Tsuji|2007|pp=74; 460–461}}<ref name=nihon-shokuhin-jiten/> or ''chakin-shibori''.<ref name=nihon-shokuhin-jiten/><ref name=kosaki&wagner/>{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|These could refer to essentially the same thing, except for slight difference in texture and appearance. The ''yuri-kinton'' has been described as "ogura an (sweet [[adzuki bean]] paste) core surrounded with stipples (''soboro'') of strained lily bulb and white adzuki (''shiroazuki'' or ''shiroshōzu'').<ref name=moriyasu/> A recipe for lily bulb dumplings or ''chakin-shibori'' calls for wrapping adzuki bean paste with lily bulb mashed into [[purée]], then wrapping it in a cloth and wringing the dumpling into a ball shape.<ref name=kosaki&wagner/>}}

====Yokan====
There is also the ''yuri-[[yōkan]]'', one recipe of which calls for combining measures of yuri starch with [[agar]] dissolved in water and sugar.<ref>{{harvp|Shin shikunshi|1901}}, [https://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/840167/73 pp. 133–135] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200210013631/https://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/840167/73 |date=2020-02-10 }}; also excerpted in {{harvp|NSJ|1908}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=30g4AQAAMAAJ&pg=PP2116 p. 2082b] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901204944/https://books.google.com/books?id=30g4AQAAMAAJ&pg=PP2116 |date=2020-09-01 }}</ref> This was a specialty of [[Hamada, Shimane]],{{Refn|Allegedly the Hamada city version was 90% adulterated with white [Phaseolus vulgaris|bean] cultivar of called {{nihongo|Tebō|手亡}} (270 grams), to only 10% (30 grams) ground lily powder.<ref name=NDHZ-yuri/><ref name=moriyasu/> Elsewhere it is stated that ground lily dried powder {{nihongo|''kanko''|乾粉}} is far superior in quality to adzuki bean powder.{{sfnp|Shin shikunshi|1901|p=135}}}} and the shop {{nihongo|Kaisei-dō|開盛堂|}} established in 1885 became famous for it.<ref name=NDHZ-yuri/>{{sfnp|Moriyasu|1971|pp=34–35}} Because a certain Viscount Jimyōin wrote a [[Waka (poetry)|waka]] poem about the confection which mentioned ''hime-yuri'' "princess lily",{{efn|{{interlanguage link|Jimyōin Motoaki|ja|持明院基哲}} b. 1865 was a viscount and poet. So was his son Motonori.}} one source stated that the ''hime-yuri'' (usually taken to mean ''[[Lilium concolor|L. concolor]]'') had to have been used,<ref name=NDHZ-yuri/> but another source points out that the city of Hamada lies back to back with across a mountain range with [[Fuchu, Hiroshima]] which is renowned for its production of ''yama-yuri''  (''[[Lilium auratum|L. auratum]]'').<ref name=moriyasu/>{{Efn|group="lower-alpha"|And as discussed below, this yama-yuri was also called "hime-yuri" in earlier days.<ref name=dai-nihon-nokai/>}}

====Species used====

Current Japanese governmental sources ({{Circa|2005}}) list the following lily species as prominent in domestic consumption:{{Refn|Taira, Hirokazu<!--平宏和総--> et al. edd., (2006) ''Shokuhin zukan'', {{nihongo|[[Kagawa Nutrition University|KNU Publishing]] |女子栄養大学|Joshi Eiyō Daigaku}}. ''apud'' MAFF consumer bureau Q&A.<ref name=KNU-MAFF-Q&A/> Cf. KNU Prof. Gomyo's online encyclopedia.<ref name=KNU-gomyo />}}<ref>Ministry of Education (MEXT, 2005), {{interlanguage link|Standard Tables of Food Composition in Japan{{!}}''Standard Tables of Food Composition in Japan''|ja|日本食品標準成分表}}, 5th revised and expanded edition, {{URL|1=http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/gijyutu/gijyutu3/toushin/05031802/003/006.pdf |2=Appendix 1-6 to Chapter3}}</ref> the ''oni yuri'' or tiger lily ''[[Lilium lancifolium]]'', the ''kooni yuri'' [[Lilium leichtlinii var maximowiczii|''Lilium leichtlinii'' var. ''maximowiczii'']],{{efn|The {{nihongo|ko[[oni]] yuri|小鬼百合|extra="lesser ogre lily"}}.}} and the gold-banded white ''yama-yuri'' ''L. auratum''.

But Japanese sources c. 1895–1900,<ref name=dai-nihon-nokai/><ref>{{harvp|Shin shikunshi|1901}}, [https://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/840167/73 p. 132] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200210013631/https://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/840167/73 |date=2020-02-10 }}.</ref> give a top-three list which replaces ''kooni yuri'' with the {{nihongo|''sukashi-yuri''|透かし百合|extra=lit. "see-through lily", ''[[Lilium maculatum|L. maculatum]]''}} named from the gaps between the [[tepals]].<ref name=kojien-sukashiyuri/>{{Refn|This species was particularly sought after by high-end {{nihongo|kappo|割烹|}} restaurants, for braising it whole. {{harvp|Shin shikunshi|1901}}, [https://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/840167/44 p. 75].}}

There is uncertainty regarding which species is meant by the ''hime-yuri'' used as food, because although this is usually the common name for [[Lilium concolor|L. concolor]] in most up-to-date literature,<ref name=WEP/> it used to ambiguously referred to the tiger lily as well, c. 1895–1900.<ref name=dai-nihon-nokai/> The non-tiger-lily ''himeyuri'' is certainly described as quite palatable in the literature at the time, but the extent of exploitation could not have been as significant.{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|That is, not in the top three of this period.<ref name=dai-nihon-nokai/>}}

===North America===
The flower buds and roots of [[Lilium columbianum]] are traditionally gathered and eaten by North American indigenous peoples.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.borealforest.org/world/herbs_shrubs/canada_lily.htm |title=Boreal Forest, Faculty of Natural Resources Management, Lakehead University, ''Lilium canadense'', Canada Lily |access-date=2017-08-19 |archive-date=2017-08-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825192123/http://www.borealforest.org/world/herbs_shrubs/canada_lily.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Coast Salish peoples|Coast Salish]], [[Nuu-chah-nulth]] and most western [[Washington (state)|Washington]] peoples steam, boil or pit-cook the bulbs of ''[[Lilium columbianum]]''. Bitter or peppery-tasting, they were mostly used as a flavoring, often in soup with meat or fish.<ref name="Pojar">{{cite book | last = Pojar | first = Jim | title = Plants of the Pacific Northwest Coast | publisher = Lone Pine Publishing | location = Edmonton | year = 2004 |isbn=9781551055305}}</ref>