Editing History of the Internet (section)

====SATNET, CERN and the European Internet====
{{See also|Protocol Wars}}
In 1982, Norway ([[NORSAR]]/[[Norwegian Defence Research Establishment|NDRE]]) and [[Peter T. Kirstein|Peter Kirstein's]] research group at University College London (UCL) left the ARPANET and reconnected using TCP/IP over [[SATNET]].<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite IETF|title=Routing and Access Control in UK to US Services|ien=190}}</ref> There were 40 [[Internet in the United Kingdom#Early years|British research groups]] using UCL's link to ARPANET in 1975;<ref name=":9">{{cite journal |last1=Kirstein |first1=P.T. |title=Early experiences with the Arpanet and Internet in the United Kingdom |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |date=1999 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=38–44 |doi=10.1109/85.759368 |s2cid=1558618 }}</ref> by 1984 there was a user population of about 150 people on both sides of the Atlantic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kirstein |first=P. T. |date=December 1984 |title=The University College London International Computer Communications Interconnection Service |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10076375/1/pub-102-D.pdf |journal=Internal Working Paper}}</ref>

Between 1984 and 1988, [[CERN]] began installation and operation of TCP/IP to interconnect its major internal computer systems, workstations, PCs, and an accelerator control system. CERN continued to operate a limited self-developed system (CERNET) internally and several incompatible (typically proprietary) network protocols externally. There was considerable resistance in Europe towards more widespread use of TCP/IP, and the CERN TCP/IP intranets remained isolated from the Internet until 1989, when a transatlantic connection to Cornell University was established.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Fluckiger|first=Francois|date=February 2000|title=The European Researchers' Network|url=https://fluckiger.web.cern.ch/Fluckiger/Articles/F.Fluckiger-The_European_Researchers_Network.pdf|journal=La Recherche|issue=328|access-date=February 20, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929121140/https://fluckiger.web.cern.ch/Fluckiger/Articles/F.Fluckiger-The_European_Researchers_Network.pdf|archive-date=September 29, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.internethalloffame.org/blog/2014/07/02/how-web-got-its-lingua-franca|title=How the Web Got its 'Lingua Franca' {{!}} Internet Hall of Fame|website=www.internethalloffame.org|date=July 2, 2014 |access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref><ref name="nsf">{{Cite web |title=The Internet—From Modest Beginnings |url=https://www.nsf.gov/about/history/nsf0050/internet/modest.htm  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007113705/https://www.nsf.gov/about/history/nsf0050/internet/modest.htm |archive-date=2016-10-07 |work=NSF website |access-date=September 30, 2011}}</ref>

The [[CSNET|Computer Science Network]] (CSNET) began operation in 1981 to provide networking connections to institutions that could not connect directly to ARPANET. Its first international connection was to Israel in 1984. Soon after, connections were established to computer science departments in Canada, France, and Germany.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=https://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_csnet.htm|title=CSNET, Computer Science Network}}</ref>

In 1988, the first international connections to [[National Science Foundation Network|NSFNET]] was established by France's [[French Institute for Research in Computer Science and Automation|INRIA]],<ref name=":02">{{cite book |doi=10.4324/9781315748962-6 |chapter=From the Minitel to the Internet: The Path to Digital Literacy and Network Culture in France (1980s–1990s) |title=The Routledge Companion to Global Internet Histories |date=2017 |last1=Schafer |first1=Valérie |last2=Thierry |first2=Benjamin G. |pages=77–89 |isbn=978-1-315-74896-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rlwlDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT191 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=A brief history of the internet|url=http://thetechnologytrend.blogspot.com/2012/03/brief-history-of-internet.html|last=Andrianarisoa|first=Menjanirina|date=March 2, 2012}}{{user-generated inline|date=September 2023}}</ref> and [[Piet Beertema]] at the [[Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica]] (CWI) in the Netherlands.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cwi.nl/about/history/cwi-achievements-details|title=CWI History: details|website=CWI|language=en-gb|access-date=2020-02-09}}</ref> Daniel Karrenberg, from CWI, visited [[Ben Segal (computer scientist)|Ben Segal]], CERN's TCP/IP coordinator, looking for advice about the transition of [[EUnet]], the European side of the UUCP Usenet network (much of which ran over X.25 links), over to TCP/IP. The previous year, Segal had met with [[Len Bosack]] from the then still small company [[Cisco Systems|Cisco]] about purchasing some TCP/IP routers for CERN, and Segal was able to give Karrenberg advice and forward him on to Cisco for the appropriate hardware. This expanded the European portion of the Internet across the existing UUCP networks. The [[NORDUnet]] connection to NSFNET was in place soon after, providing open access for university students in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lehtisalo|first=Kaarina|url=http://www.nordu.net/history/TheHistoryOfNordunet_simple.pdf|title=The history of NORDUnet: twenty-five years of networking cooperation in the noridic countries|date=2005|publisher=NORDUnet|isbn=978-87-990712-0-3|language=en|access-date=May 2, 2020|archive-date=March 4, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304031416/http://www.nordu.net/history/TheHistoryOfNordunet_simple.pdf}}</ref> 

In January 1989, CERN opened its first external TCP/IP connections.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Segal |first=Ben |author-link=Ben Segal (computer scientist) |title=A short history of Internet protocols at CERN |publisher=CERN |year=1995 |location=Geneva |publication-date=April 1995 |language=English |doi=10.17181/CERN_TCP_IP_history}}</ref> This coincided with the creation of Réseaux IP Européens ([[RIPE]]), initially a group of IP network administrators who met regularly to carry out coordination work together. Later, in 1992, RIPE was formally registered as a [[cooperative]] in Amsterdam.

The United Kingdom's [[national research and education network]] (NREN), [[JANET]], began operation in 1984 using the UK's [[Coloured Book protocols]] and connected to NSFNET in 1989. In 1991, JANET adopted Internet Protocol on the existing network.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 1991|title=FLAGSHIP|url=http://www.chilton-computing.org.uk/ccd/literature/ccd_newsletters/flagship/p012.htm|journal=Central Computing Department Newsletter|issue=12|access-date=February 20, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213100220/http://www.chilton-computing.org.uk/ccd/literature/ccd_newsletters/flagship/p012.htm|archive-date=February 13, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=September 1991|title=FLAGSHIP|url=http://www.chilton-computing.org.uk/ccd/literature/ccd_newsletters/flagship/p016.htm|journal=Central Computing Department Newsletter|issue=16|access-date=February 20, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213100222/http://www.chilton-computing.org.uk/ccd/literature/ccd_newsletters/flagship/p016.htm|archive-date=February 13, 2020}}</ref> The same year, Dai Davies introduced Internet technology into the pan-European NREN, [[DANTE|EuropaNet]], which was built on the X.25 protocol.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.internethalloffame.org/inductee/dai-davies/ |title=Dai Davies |website=Internet Hall of Fame }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.internethalloffame.org/2015/01/16/protocol-wars/ |title=Protocol Wars |website=Internet Hall of Fame |date=January 16, 2015 }}</ref> The [[European Academic and Research Network]] (EARN) and [[TERENA|RARE]] adopted IP around the same time, and the European Internet backbone [[EBONE]] became operational in 1992.<ref name=":6" />

Nonetheless, for a period in the late 1980s and early 1990s, engineers, organizations and nations were [[Protocol Wars|polarized over the issue of which standard]], the [[OSI model]] or the Internet protocol suite would result in the best and most robust computer networks.<ref name="ieee201703" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Russell |first1=A.L. |title='Rough Consensus and Running Code' and the Internet-OSI Standards War |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |date=July 2006 |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=48–61 |doi=10.1109/MAHC.2006.42 |s2cid=206442834 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url={{Google books|DN-t8MpZ0-wC|page=106|plainurl=yes}} |title=The Protocol Wars |pages=106–107 }} in  {{cite book |doi=10.1002/9783527629336.ch4 |chapter=Different Approaches |title=A History of International Research Networking |date=2010 |pages=73–110 |isbn=978-3-527-32710-2 |first1=Howard |last1=Davies |first2=Beatrice |last2=Bressan }}</ref>