Editing History of France (section)

== Napoleonic France (1799–1815) ==
{{See also|Napoleonic wars}}
[[File:Ingres, Napoleon on his Imperial throne.jpg|thumb|''[[Napoleon I on His Imperial Throne]]'', by [[Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres]]]]
During the [[War of the First Coalition]] (1792–1797), the [[French Directory|Directory]] had replaced the National Convention. Five directors then ruled France. As Great Britain was still at war with France, a plan was made to [[French invasion of Egypt (1798)|take Egypt]] from the Ottoman Empire, a British ally. This was [[Napoleon]]'s idea and the Directory agreed to the plan in order to send the popular general away from the mainland. Napoleon defeated the Ottoman forces during the [[Battle of the Pyramids]] (1798). Scientists and linguists thoroughly explored Egypt. Weeks later, the British fleet under [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson|Admiral Horatio Nelson]] unexpectedly destroyed the French fleet at the [[Battle of the Nile]]. Napoleon planned to move into Syria, but was defeated at the [[Siege of Acre (1799)|Siege of Acre]]. He returned to France without his army, which surrendered.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Strathern |first=Paul |title=Napoleon in Egypt |date=2009 |author-link=Paul Strathern}}</ref>

The Directory was threatened by the [[War of the Second Coalition|Second Coalition]] (1798–1802). Royalists and their allies still dreamed of restoring the monarchy to power, while the Prussian and Austrian crowns did not accept their territorial losses during the previous war. In 1799, the Russian army expelled the French from Italy in battles such as [[Battle of Cassano (1799)|Cassano]], while the Austrian army defeated the French in Switzerland at [[Battle of Stockach (1799)|Stockach]] and [[First Battle of Zürich|Zurich]]. Napoleon then seized power through a coup and established the [[French Consulate|Consulate]] in 1799. The Austrian army was defeated at the [[Battle of Marengo (1800)|Battle of Marengo]] and the [[Battle of Hohenlinden (1800)|Battle of Hohenlinden]] in 1800.{{Sfnp|Nafziger|2002}}

While at sea [[Louis-René Levassor de Latouche Tréville|the French]] had some success at Boulogne but Nelson's Royal Navy destroyed an anchored Danish and Norwegian fleet at the [[Battle of Copenhagen (1801)]] because the Scandinavian kingdoms were against the British blockade of France. The Second Coalition was beaten and peace was settled in two distinct treaties: the [[Treaty of Lunéville]] and the [[Treaty of Amiens]]. A brief interlude of peace ensued in 1802–03, during which Napoleon [[Louisiana Purchase|sold French Louisiana]] to the United States, because it was indefensible.{{Sfnp|Nafziger|2002}}

In 1801, Napoleon concluded a "Concordat" with Pope Pius VII that opened peaceful relations between church and state in France. The policies of the Revolution were reversed, except the Church did not get its lands back. Bishops and clergy were to receive state salaries, and the government would pay for the building and maintenance of churches.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aston |first=Nigel |title=Religion and revolution in France, 1780–1804 |date=2000 |page=324}}</ref> Napoleon reorganized higher learning by dividing the {{Lang|fr|Institut National}} into four (later five) academies.

[[File:La bataille d'Austerlitz. 2 decembre 1805 (François Gérard).jpg|thumb|alt=Napoléon at the Battle of Austerlitz, by François Gérard|Napoléon at the [[Battle of Austerlitz]], by [[François Gérard]]]]
In 1804, Napoleon was titled Emperor by the senate, thus founding the [[First French Empire]]. Napoleon's rule was constitutional, and although autocratic, it was much more advanced than traditional European monarchies of the time. The proclamation of the French Empire was met by the [[War of the Third Coalition|Third Coalition]]. The French army was renamed {{Lang|fr|[[La Grande Armée]]}} in 1805 and Napoleon used propaganda and nationalism to control the French population. The French army achieved a resounding victory at [[Battle of Ulm|Ulm]], where an entire Austrian army was captured.<ref name="Robert P. Goetz 2005">{{Cite book |last=Goetz |first=Robert P. |title=1805: Austerlitz: Napoleon and the Destruction of the Third Coalition |date=2005}}</ref>

A Franco-Spanish fleet was defeated at [[Battle of Trafalgar|Trafalgar]], making plans to invade Britain impossible. Despite this defeat, Napoleon inflicted on the Austrian and Russian Empires one of their greatest defeats at [[Battle of Austerlitz|Austerlitz]] on December 2, 1805, destroying the Third Coalition. Peace was settled in the [[Treaty of Pressburg (1805)|Treaty of Pressburg]]; the Austrian Empire lost the title of [[Holy Roman Emperor]] and the [[Confederation of the Rhine]] was created by Napoleon over former Austrian territories.<ref name="Robert P. Goetz 2005"/>

=== Coalitions formed against Napoleon ===
Prussia joined Britain and Russia, thus forming the [[War of the Fourth Coalition|Fourth Coalition]]. Although the Coalition was joined by other allies, the French Empire was also not alone since it now had a complex network of allies and subject states. The largely outnumbered French army crushed the Prussian army at [[Battle of Jena-Auerstedt|Jena-Auerstedt]] in 1806; Napoleon captured Berlin and went as far as Eastern Prussia. There the Russian Empire was defeated at the [[Battle of Friedland]] (14 June 1807). Peace was dictated in the [[Treaties of Tilsit]], in which Russia had to join the [[Continental System]], and Prussia handed half of its territories to France. The [[Duchy of Warsaw]] was formed over these territorial losses, and Polish troops entered the Grande Armée in significant numbers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kagan |first=Frederick |title=The End of the Old Order: Napoleon and Europe, 1801–1805 |date=2007 |publisher=Hachette Books |isbn=978-0-3068-1645-1 |page=141ff |author-link=Frederick Kagan |orig-date=2006}}</ref>

In order to ruin the British economy, Napoleon set up the Continental System in 1807, and tried to prevent merchants across Europe from trading with Britain. The large amount of smuggling frustrated Napoleon, and did more harm to his economy than to his enemies'.{{Sfnp|Lefebvre|1969|pp=1–32, 205–262}}
[[File:Map of First French Empire and Vassals States.png|thumb|The height of the [[First French Empire|First Empire]]]]
Freed from his obligation in the east, Napoleon then went back to the west, as the French Empire was still at war with Britain. Only two countries remained neutral in the war: Sweden and Portugal, and Napoleon then looked toward the latter. In the [[Treaty of Fontainebleau (October 1807)|Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807)]], a Franco-Spanish alliance against Portugal was sealed as Spain eyed Portuguese territories. French armies entered Spain in order to attack Portugal, but then seized Spanish fortresses and took over the kingdom by surprise. [[Joseph Bonaparte]], Napoleon's brother, was made King of Spain after [[Charles IV of Spain|Charles IV]] abdicated.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Glover |first=Michael |title=Legacy of Glory: The Bonaparte Kingdom of Spain, 1808–1813 |date=1971 |publisher=Scribner |isbn=978-0-6841-2558-9 |author-link=Michael Glover (historian)}}</ref>

This occupation of the Iberian peninsula fueled local nationalism, and soon the Spanish and Portuguese fought the French using [[guerilla tactics]], defeating the French forces at the [[Battle of Bailén]] (June and July 1808). Britain sent a short-lived ground support force to Portugal, and French forces evacuated Portugal as defined in the [[Convention of Sintra]] following the Allied victory at [[Battle of Vimeiro|Vimeiro]] (21 August 1808). France only controlled [[Catalonia]] and [[Navarre]] and could have been definitely expelled from the Iberian peninsula had the Spanish armies attacked again, but the Spanish did not.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Tranié |first1=J. |title=Napoleon's War in Spain: The French Peninsular Campaigns, 1807–1814 |last2=Carmigniani |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Lachouque |first3=Henry |last4=de Beaufort |first4=Louis |date=1994 |publisher=Arms and Armour Press |isbn=978-0-8536-8506-7 |author-link4=Louis de Beaufort |orig-date=1982}}</ref>

Another French attack was launched on Spain, led by Napoleon himself, and was described as "an avalanche of fire and steel". However, the French Empire was no longer regarded as invincible by European powers. In 1808, Austria formed the [[War of the Fifth Coalition|Fifth Coalition]] in order to break down the French Empire. The Austrian Empire defeated the French at [[Battle of Aspern-Essling|Aspern-Essling]], yet was beaten at [[Battle of Wagram|Wagram]] while the Polish allies defeated the Austrian Empire at [[Battle of Raszyn (1809)|Raszyn]] (April 1809). Although not as decisive as the previous Austrian defeats, the [[Treaty of Schönbrunn|peace treaty]] in October 1809 stripped Austria of a large amount of territory, reducing it even more.

[[File:Napoleons retreat from moscow.jpg|thumb|Napoleon Bonaparte retreating from Moscow, by [[Adolf Northern]]]]
In 1812, war broke out with Russia, engaging Napoleon in the disastrous [[French invasion of Russia (1812)]]. Napoleon assembled the largest army Europe had ever seen, including troops from all subject states, to invade Russia, which had just left the continental system and was gathering an army on the Polish frontier. Following an exhausting march and the bloody but inconclusive [[Battle of Borodino]], near Moscow, the Grande Armée entered and captured Moscow, only to find it burning as part of the Russian [[scorched earth]] tactics. Although there still were battles, the Napoleonic army left Russia in late 1812 annihilated, most of all by the Russian winter, exhaustion, and scorched earth warfare. On the Spanish front the French troops were defeated at [[Battle of Vitoria|Vitoria]] (June 1813) and then at the [[Battle of the Pyrenees]] (July–August 1813). Since the Spanish guerrillas seemed to be uncontrollable, the French troops eventually evacuated Spain.{{Sfnp|Lefebvre|1969|pp=309–352}}

Since France had been defeated on these two fronts, states that had been conquered and controlled by Napoleon saw a good opportunity to strike back. The [[War of the Sixth Coalition|Sixth Coalition]] was formed under British leadership.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Muir |first=Rory |title=Britain and the Defeat of Napoleon, 1807–1815 |date=1996 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-3001-9757-0}}</ref> The German states of the Confederation of the Rhine switched sides, finally opposing Napoleon. Napoleon was largely defeated in the [[Battle of Leipzig|Battle of the Nations]] outside Leipzig in October 1813, his forces heavily outnumbered by the Allied coalition armies and was overwhelmed by much larger armies during the [[Six Days Campaign]] (February 1814), although, the Six Days Campaign is often considered a tactical masterpiece because the allies suffered much higher casualties. Napoleon abdicated on 6 April 1814, and was exiled to [[Elba]].{{Sfnp|Roberts|2014|pp=662–712}}

The [[Congress of Vienna]] reversed the political changes that had occurred during the wars. Napoleon suddenly returned, seized control of France, raised an army, and marched on his enemies in the [[Hundred Days]]. It ended with his final defeat at the [[Battle of Waterloo]] in 1815, and his exile to St. Helena, a remote island in the South Atlantic Ocean.{{Sfnp|Lefebvre|1969|pp=353–372}}

The monarchy was subsequently restored and [[Louis XVIII of France|Louis XVIII]], younger brother of Louis XVI became king, and the exiles returned. However many of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic reforms were kept in place.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=John Hall |title=The restoration era in France, 1814–1830 |date=1968 |publisher=Van Nostrand |isbn=978-0-8446-3013-7}}</ref>

=== Napoleon's impact on France ===
Napoleon centralized power in Paris, with all the provinces governed by all-powerful prefects whom he selected. They were more powerful than royal intendants of the {{Lang|fr|ancien régime}} and had a long-term impact in unifying the nation, minimizing regional differences, and shifting all decisions to Paris.{{Sfnp|Goubert|1988|loc=Chapter 14}}

Religion had been a major issue during the Revolution, and Napoleon resolved most of the outstanding problems, moving the clergy and large numbers of devout Catholics from hostility to the government to support for him. The Catholic system was reestablished by the [[Concordat of 1801]] (signed with Pope [[Pius VII]]), so that church life returned to normal; the church lands were not restored but the Jesuits were allowed back in and the bitter fights between the government and Church ended. Protestants, Jews and atheists were tolerated.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sutherland |first=D. M. G. |title=The French Revolution and Empire: The Quest for a Civic Order |date=2003 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-6312-3362-6 |pages=329–333 |orig-date=2002}}</ref>

The French taxation system had collapsed in the 1780s. In the 1790s the government seized and sold church lands and lands of exiled aristocrats. Napoleon instituted a modern, efficient tax system that guaranteed a steady flow of revenues and made long-term financing possible.{{Sfnp|Lefebvre|1969|pp=171–179}}

Napoleon kept the system of conscription that had been created in the 1790s, so that every young man served in the army, which could be rapidly expanded even as it was based on a core of careerists and talented officers. Before the Revolution the aristocracy formed the officer corps. Now promotion was by merit and achievement—every private carried a marshal's baton, it was said.{{Sfnp|Sutherland|2003|pp=336–372}}

The modern era of French education began in the 1790s. The Revolution in the 1790s abolished the traditional universities.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barnard |first=Howard Clive |title=Education and the French Revolution |date=1969 |publisher=Cambridge U.P. |isbn=978-0-5210-7256-4}}</ref> Napoleon sought to replace them with new institutions, the [[École Polytechnique]], focused on technology.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bradley |first=Margaret |date=1976 |title=Scientific Education for a New Society The Ecole<!--[sic; no accent]--> Polytechnique 1795–1830 |journal=[[History of Education: Journal of the History of Education Society|History of Education]] |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=11–24 |doi=10.1080/0046760760050103}}</ref> The elementary schools received little attention.

==== Napoleonic Code ====
Of permanent importance was the [[Napoleonic Code]] created by eminent jurists under Napoleon's supervision. Praised for its <!--Gallic(??)--> clarity, it spread rapidly throughout Europe and the world in general, and marked the end of feudalism and the liberation of serfs where it took effect.{{Sfnp|Grab|2003}} The Code recognized the principles of civil liberty, equality before the law, and the secular character of the state. It discarded the old right of primogeniture (where only the eldest son inherited) and required that inheritances be divided equally among all the children. The court system was standardized; all judges were appointed by the national government in Paris.{{Sfnp|Goubert|1988|loc=Chapter 14}}