Editing Chicano (section)

=== Criminalization ===
{{See also|Cholo (subculture)#Criminalization|Pinto (subculture)|Gringo justice}}
[[File:Lynching of Francisco Arias and José Chamales.jpg|thumb|221x221px|Francisco Arias and José Chamales were [[Lynching|lynched]] in [[Santa Cruz, California]] in 1877.<ref name="Mirandé-2019">{{Cite book |last=Mirandé |first=Alfredo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8U2wDwAAQBAJ |title=Gringo Injustice: Insider Perspectives on Police, Gangs, and Law |publisher=Routledge |year=2019 |isbn=9781000022964 |chapter=Introduction |format=E-book |archive-date=2023-11-20 |access-date=2023-03-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120032432/https://books.google.com/books?id=8U2wDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
The 19th-century and early-20th-century image of the Mexican in the U.S. was "that of the greasy Mexican bandit or ''bandito,''" who was perceived as criminal because of [[Mestizo]] ancestry and "Indian blood."<ref name="Mirandé-2019-1">{{Cite book |last=Mirandé |first=Alfredo |title=Gringo Injustice: Insider Perspectives on Police, Gangs, and Law |publisher=Routledge |year=2019 |isbn=9780367276065 |pages=1–20}}</ref> This rhetoric fueled [[anti-Mexican sentiment]] among whites, which led to [[Lynching in the United States#Other ethnicities|many lynchings of Mexicans in the period]] as an act of racist violence.<ref name="Mirandé-2019-1" /> One of the largest massacres of Mexicans was known as ''[[La Matanza (1910–1920)|La Matanza]]'' in [[Texas]], where hundreds of Mexicans were lynched by white mobs.<ref name="Villanueva-2018">{{Cite book |author=Villanueva, Nicholas |title=The lynching of Mexicans in the Texas borderlands |date=August 2018 |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |isbn=9780826360304 |oclc=1032029983}}</ref> Many whites viewed Mexicans as inherently criminal, which they connected to their Indigenous ancestry.<ref name="Mirandé-2019-1" /> White historian [[Walter Prescott Webb|Walter P. Webb]] wrote in 1935, "there is a cruel streak in the Mexican nature ... this cruelty may be a heritage from the Spanish and of the Inquisition; it may, and doubtless should be, attributed partly to Indian blood."<ref name="Mirandé-2019-1" /> [[File:Victims of the Zoot Suit Riots.jpg|left|thumb|195x195px|The portrayal of Chicano men as violent criminals in U.S. media fueled the [[Zoot Suit Riots]]. Although attacks were initiated by U.S. servicemen, hundreds of Chicanos were arrested.<ref name="PerezMcCluskey-2007" />]]The "greasy bandito" [[stereotype]] of the [[old West]] evolved into images of "crazed Zoot-Suiters and pachuco killers in the 1940s, to contemporary ''[[Cholo (subculture)|cholos]]'', gangsters, and gang members."<ref name="Mirandé-2019-1" /> [[Pachuco]]s were portrayed as violent criminals in American [[mainstream media]], which fueled the [[Zoot Suit Riots]]; initiated by off-duty policemen conducting a vigilante-hunt, the riots targeted Chicano youth who wore the [[zoot suit]] as a symbol of empowerment.<ref name="PerezMcCluskey-2007" /> On-duty police supported the violence against Chicano zoot suiters; they "escorted the servicemen to safety and arrested their Chicano victims."<ref name="PerezMcCluskey-2007" /> Arrest rates of Chicano youth rose during these decades, fueled by the "criminal" image portrayed in the media, by politicians, and by the police.<ref name="PerezMcCluskey-2007">{{Cite book|last1=Perez McCluskey|first1=Cynthia|title=Latinos in a Changing Society|last2=Villaruel|first2=Francisco A.|publisher=Praegar Publishers|year=2007|isbn=9780275962333|pages=186–187|chapter=Policing the Latino Community}}</ref> Not aspiring to assimilate in [[Anglo-Americans|Anglo-American]] society, Chicano youth were criminalized for their defiance to [[cultural assimilation]]: "When many of the same youth began wearing what the larger society considered outlandish clothing, sporting distinctive hairstyles, speaking in their own language ([[Caló (Chicano)|''Caló'']]), and dripping with attitude, law enforcement redoubled their efforts to rid [them from] the streets."<ref name="SànchezWalsh-2003">{{Cite book |last=Sànchez Walsh |first=Arlene |title=Latino Pentecostal Identity: Evangelical Faith, Self, and Society |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2003 |isbn=9780231508964 |pages=95–97}}</ref>
In the 1970s and subsequent decades, there was a wave of police killings of Chicanos. One of the most prominent cases was Luis "Tato" Rivera, who was a 20-year-old Chicano shot in the back by officer Craig Short in 1975. 2,000 Chicano demonstrators showed up to the city hall of [[National City, California]] in protest. Short was indicted for [[manslaughter]] by district attorney Ed Miller and was acquitted of all charges. Short was later appointed acting [[chief of police]] of National City in 2003.<ref name="Mirandé-2019-1" /> Another high-profile case was the murder of [[Ricardo Falcón]], a student at the [[University of Colorado]] and leader of the United Latin American Students (UMAS), by Perry Brunson, a member of the far-right [[American Independent Party]], at a gas station. Bruson was tried for manslaughter and was "acquitted by an all-White jury".<ref name="Mirandé-2019-1" /> Falcón became a [[martyr]] for the Chicano Movement as police violence increased in the subsequent decades.<ref name="Mirandé-2019-1" /> Similar cases led sociologist [[Alfredo Mirandé]] to refer to the U.S. criminal justice system as ''[[gringo justice]]'', because "it reflected one standard for Anglos and another for Chicanos."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mirandé|first=Alfredo|title=Gringo Injustice: Insider Perspectives on Police, Gangs, and Law|publisher=Routledge|year=2019|isbn=9780367276065|page=47}}</ref>
[[File:Cacos 13, Cholos Neza.jpg|thumb|222x222px|''[[Cholo (subculture)|Cholo]]'' youth adopt a particular style of dress that has been attached with deviancy by authorities.<ref name="Plascencia-Castillo-2019" />]]
The criminalization of Chicano youth in the ''[[Barrioization|barrio]]'' remains [[Omnipresence|omnipresent]]. Chicano youth who adopt a ''cholo'' or ''chola'' identity endure hyper-criminalization in what has been described by [[Victor Rios]] as the [[youth control complex]].<ref name="Rios-2007">{{Cite book|last=Rios|first=Victor M.|title=Racializing Justice, Disenfranchising Lives: The Racism, Criminal Justice, and Law Reader|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US|year=2007|isbn=9780230607347|editor-last=Steinberg|editor-first=I.|pages=17–21|chapter=The Hypercriminalization of Black and Latino Male Youth in the Era of Mass Incarceration|editor-last2=Middlemass|editor-first2=K.|editor-last3=Marable|editor-first3=M.}}</ref> While older residents initially "embraced the idea of a ''chola'' or ''cholo'' as a larger subculture not necessarily associated with crime and violence (but rather with a youthful temporary identity), law enforcement agents, ignorant or disdainful of ''barrio'' life, labeled youth who wore clean white tennis shoes, shaved their heads, or long socks, as deviant."<ref name="Plascencia-Castillo-2019">{{Cite book|last=Plascencia-Castillo|first=José S.|title=Gringo Injustice: Insider Perspectives on Police, Gangs, and Law|publisher=Routledge|year=2019|isbn=9780367276065|pages=154–169}}</ref> Community members were convinced by the police of cholo criminality, which led to criminalization and surveillance "reminiscent of the criminalization of Chicana and Chicano youth during the Zoot-Suit era in the 1940s."<ref name="Plascencia-Castillo-2019" />

Sociologist José S. Plascencia-Castillo refers to the ''[[Barrioization|barrio]]'' as a [[panopticon]] that leads to intense self-regulation, as Cholo youth are both scrutinized by law enforcement to "stay in their side of town" and by the community who in some cases "call the police to have the youngsters removed from the premises".<ref name="Plascencia-Castillo-2019" /> The intense governance of Chicano youth, especially of cholo identity, has deep implications on youth experience, affecting their physical and mental health as well as their outlook on the future. Some youth feel they "can either comply with the demands of authority figures, and become obedient and compliant, and suffer the accompanying loss of identity and self-esteem, or, adopt a resistant stance and contest [[social invisibility]] to command respect in the public sphere."<ref name="Plascencia-Castillo-2019" />