Editing Catalan language (section)

== Sociolinguistics ==
[[File:WIKITONGUES- Ona speaking Catalan.webm|thumb|A speaker of Catalan (Majorcan dialect)]]
[[File:WIKITONGUES- Artur speaking Catalan.webm|thumb|[[Artur Mas]], former president of Catalonia, discussing individual identity, collective identity and language]]

Catalan [[sociolinguistics]] studies the situation of Catalan in the world and the different varieties that this language presents. It is a subdiscipline of Catalan [[philology]] and other affine studies and has as an objective to analyze the relation between the Catalan language, the speakers and the close reality (including the one of other languages in contact).

=== Preferential subjects of study ===
* [[Dialect]]s of Catalan
* Variations of Catalan by class, gender, profession, age and level of studies
* Process of [[standardization|linguistic normalization]]
* Relations between Catalan and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] or [[French language|French]]
* Perception on the language of Catalan speakers and non-speakers
* Presence of Catalan in several fields: tagging, public function, media, professional sectors

=== Dialects ===
{{Main|Catalan dialects}}

==== Overview ====
[[File:Catalan dialects-en.png|thumb|Main dialects of Catalan{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=6}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=2}}{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|p=4}}]]
The dialects of the Catalan language feature a relative uniformity, especially when compared to other Romance languages;{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}} both in terms of [[vocabulary]], [[semantics]], [[syntax]], [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], and [[phonology]].{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|pp=634–635}} Mutual intelligibility between dialects is very high,{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}}{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|p=5}}{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} estimates ranging from 90% to 95%.<ref name="e25" /> The only exception is the isolated idiosyncratic [[Algherese dialect]].{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}}

Catalan is split in two major dialectal blocks: Eastern and Western.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|pp=634–635}} The main difference lies in the treatment of unstressed {{lang|ca|a}} and {{lang|ca|e}}; which have merged to {{IPA|/ə/}} in Eastern dialects, but which remain distinct as {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/e/}} in Western dialects.{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}}{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} There are a few other differences in pronunciation, verbal morphology, and vocabulary.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}}

Western Catalan comprises the two dialects of [[Northwestern Catalan|North-Western Catalan]] and [[Valencian language|Valencian]]; the Eastern block comprises four dialects: [[Central Catalan]], [[Balearic dialect|Balearic]], [[Northern Catalan|Roussillonese]], and [[Algherese dialect|Algherese]].{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} Each dialect can be further subdivided in several subdialects. The terms "Catalan" and "[[Valencian language|Valencian]]" (respectively used in [[Catalonia]] and the [[Valencian Community]]) refer to two varieties of the same language.<ref name="Dictamen de l'Acadèmia">{{Citation |title=Dictamen de l'Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l'entitat del valencià |date=2005 |url=http://www.avl.gva.es/va/acords-AVL/main/03/document/NOMENTITAT.pdf |trans-title=Resolution of the Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua concerning the principles and criteria for protecting the name and identity of Valencian |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923181117/http://www.avl.gva.es/va/acords-AVL/main/03/document/NOMENTITAT.pdf |publisher=[[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]] |language=ca-valencia |archive-date=23 September 2015}}</ref> There are two institutions regulating the two standard varieties, the [[Institut d'Estudis Catalans|Institute of Catalan Studies]] in Catalonia and the [[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua|Valencian Academy of the Language]] in the Valencian Community.

Central Catalan is considered the standard pronunciation of the language and has the largest number of speakers.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} It is spoken in the densely populated regions of the [[Barcelona Province (Spain)|Barcelona province]], the eastern half of the province of Tarragona, and most of the province of Girona.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}

Catalan has an inflectional grammar. Nouns have two [[grammatical gender|genders]] (masculine, feminine), and two [[grammatical number|numbers]] (singular, plural). Pronouns additionally can have a neuter gender, and some are also inflected for [[grammatical case|case]] and [[T–V distinction|politeness]], and can be combined in very complex ways. Verbs are split in several paradigms and are inflected for [[grammatical person|person]], [[grammatical number|number]], [[grammatical tense|tense]], [[grammatical aspect|aspect]], [[grammatical mood|mood]], and [[grammatical gender|gender]]. In terms of pronunciation, Catalan has many words ending in a wide variety of consonants and some consonant clusters, in contrast with many other Romance languages.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; "
|+ Main dialectal divisions of Catalan{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=2–3}}
|-
! Block
| colspan="2" | '''Western Catalan''' || colspan="4" | '''Eastern Catalan'''
|-
! Variety
| '''[[Northwestern Catalan|North-Western]]''' || '''[[Valencian language|Valencian]]''' || '''[[Central Catalan|Central]]''' || '''[[Balearic dialect|Balearic]]''' || '''[[Northern Catalan|Northern]]''' (Roussillonese) || '''[[Algherese dialect|Alguerese]]''' (Algherese)
|-
! rowspan="2" | Area
| [[Spain]], [[Andorra]] || colspan="3" | [[Spain]] || [[France]] || [[Italy]]
|-
| [[Andorra]], provinces of [[province of Lleida|Lleida]], western half of [[province of Tarragona|Tarragona]], [[La Franja]] ([[Aragon]]) || [[Valencian Community]], [[Carche]] ([[Region of Murcia|Murcia]]) || Provinces of [[province of Barcelona|Barcelona]], eastern half of [[province of Tarragona|Tarragona]], most of [[province of Girona|Girona]] || [[Balearic Islands]] || [[Roussillon]] ([[Northern Catalonia]]) || City of [[Alghero]] in [[Sardinia]]
|}

=== Pronunciation {{Anchor|Dialect pronunciation section}} ===

==== Vowels ====
Catalan has inherited the typical vowel system of [[Vulgar Latin]], with seven stressed phonemes: {{IPA|/a, ɛ, e, i, ɔ, o, u/}}, a common feature in [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]], except [[Spanish language|Spanish]].{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} [[Balearic dialect|Balearic]] has also instances of stressed {{IPA|/ə/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=37, 53–54}} Dialects differ in the different degrees of [[vowel reduction]],{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=37}} and the incidence of the pair {{IPA|/ɛ e/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}}

In [[Eastern Catalan]] (except Majorcan), unstressed vowels reduce to three: {{IPA|/a, e, ɛ/ > [ə]}}; {{IPA|/o, ɔ, u/ > [u]}}; {{IPA|/i/}} remains distinct.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=54}} There are a few instances of unreduced {{IPA|[e]}}, {{IPA|[o]}} in some words.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=54}} [[Algherese dialect|Algherese]] has lowered {{IPA|[ə]}} to {{IPA|[a]}}.

In Majorcan, unstressed vowels reduce to four: {{IPA|/a, e, ɛ/}} follow the Eastern Catalan reduction pattern; however {{IPA|/o, ɔ/}} reduce to {{IPA|[o]}}, with {{IPA|/u/}} remaining distinct, as in Western Catalan.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=53–54}}

In [[Western Catalan]], unstressed vowels reduce to five: {{IPA|/e, ɛ/ > [e]}}; {{IPA|/o, ɔ/ > [o]}}; {{IPA|/a, u, i/}} remain distinct.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=53}}{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1999|pp=54–55<!-- seems to be wrong page number: this page relates to Arabic according to Google Books -->}} This reduction pattern, inherited from [[Proto-Romance]], is also found in [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]].{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=53}} Some Western dialects present further reduction or vowel harmony in some cases.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=53}}{{sfn|Recasens|1996|pp=75–76, 128–129}}

Central, Western, and Balearic differ in the lexical incidence of stressed {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/ɛ/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} Usually, words with {{IPA|/ɛ/}} in Central Catalan correspond to {{IPA|/ə/}} in Balearic and {{IPA|/e/}} in Western Catalan.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} Words with {{IPA|/e/}} in Balearic almost always have {{IPA|/e/}} in Central and Western Catalan as well.{{vague|date=April 2014}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} As a result, Central Catalan has a much higher incidence of {{IPA|/ɛ/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}}

{|
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Different incidence of stressed {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/ə/}}, {{IPA|/ɛ/}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | Word !! colspan="2" | Western !! colspan="3" | Eastern
|-
! North-Western !! Valencian !! Majorcan !! Central !! Northern
|-
| '''{{lang|ca|set}}''' <br /> ("thirst")
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ˈset/}} || {{IPA|/ˈsət/}} || {{IPA|/ˈsɛt/}} || {{IPA|/ˈset/}}
|-
| '''{{lang|ca|ven}}''' <br /> ("he sells")
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ˈven/}} || {{IPA|/ˈvən/}} || {{IPA|/ˈbɛn/}} || {{IPA|/ˈven/}}
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ General differences in the pronunciation of unstressed vowels in different dialects{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}{{sfn|Melchor|Branchadell|2002|p=71}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | Word !! colspan="2" | Western !! colspan="4" | Eastern
|-
! North-Western !! Valencian !! Majorcan !! Central !! Northern
|-
| '''{{lang|ca|mare}}''' <br /> ("mother") || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ˈmaɾe/}} || colspan="3" | {{IPA|/ˈmaɾə/}}
|-
| '''{{lang|ca|cançó}}''' <br /> ("song") || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/kanˈso/}} || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/kənˈso/}} || {{IPA|/kənˈsu/}}
|-
| '''{{lang|ca|posar}}''' <br /> ("to put") || colspan="3" | {{IPA|/poˈza(ɾ)/}} || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/puˈza(ɾ)/}}
|-
| '''{{lang|ca|ferro}}''' <br /> ("iron") || colspan="3" | {{IPA|/ˈfɛro/}} || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ˈfɛru/}}
|}
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Detailed examples of vowel reduction processes in different dialects{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=53–55}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | !! rowspan="2" | Word pairs:<br />the first with stressed root,<br />the second with unstressed root !! rowspan="2" | Western !! colspan="3" | Eastern
|-
! Majorcan !! Central !! Northern
|-
! rowspan="4" | Front <br /> vowels
| '''{{lang|ca|gel}}''' ("ice") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|gelat}}''' ("ice cream")
| style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈdʒɛl]}} <br /> {{IPA|[dʒeˈlat]}} || colspan="2" style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈʒɛl]}} <br /> {{IPA|[ʒəˈlat]}} || style="background:#fafad2;"| {{IPA|[ˈʒel]}} <br /> {{IPA|[ʒəˈlat]}}
|-
| '''{{lang|ca|pera}}''' ("pear") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|perera}}''' ("pear tree")
| style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈpeɾa]}} <br /> {{IPA|[peˈɾeɾa]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈpəɾə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[pəˈɾeɾə]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈpɛɾə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[pəˈɾeɾə]}} || style="background:#fafad2;"|{{IPA|[ˈpeɾə]}}<br />{{IPA|[pəˈɾeɾə]}}
|-
| '''{{lang|ca|pedra}}''' ("stone") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|pedrera}}''' ("quarry")
| style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈpeðɾa]}} <br /> {{IPA|[peˈðɾeɾa]}} || colspan="3" style="background:#cef2da;"|{{IPA|[ˈpeðɾə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[pəˈðɾeɾə]}}
|-
| '''{{lang|ca|banya}}''' ("he bathes") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|banyem}}'''/{{lang|ca|'''banyam'''}} ("we bathe")
| style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈbaɲa]}} <br /> {{IPA|[baˈɲem]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈbaɲə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[bəˈɲam]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈbaɲə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[bəˈɲɛm]}} || style="background:#fafad2;"| {{IPA|[ˈbaɲə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[bəˈɲem]}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | Back <br /> vowels
| '''{{lang|ca|cosa}}''' ("thing") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|coseta}}''' ("little thing")
| style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈkɔza]}} <br /> {{IPA|[koˈzeta]}} || style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈkɔzə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[koˈzətə]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈkɔzə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[kuˈzɛtə]}} || style="background:#fafad2;"| {{IPA|[ˈkozə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[kuˈzetə]}}
|-
| '''{{lang|ca|tot}}''' ("everything") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|total}}''' ("total")
| colspan="2" style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈtot]}} <br /> {{IPA|[toˈtal]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈtot]}} <br /> {{IPA|[tuˈtal]}} || style="background:#fafad2;"| {{IPA|[ˈtut]}} <br /> {{IPA|[tuˈtal]}}
|}

==== Consonants ====
Catalan dialects are characterized by [[final-obstruent devoicing]], [[lenition]] and [[voicing assimilation]]. Additionally, many dialects contrast two [[rhotic consonant|rhotics]] ({{IPA|/r, ɾ/}}) and two [[lateral consonant|laterals]] ({{IPA|/l, ʎ/}}).

Most Catalan dialects are also renowned by the usage of ''[[dark l]]'' (i.e. [[velarization]] of {{IPA|/l/}} → {{IPAblink|ɫ}}), which is especially noticeable in syllable [[syllabic coda|final]] position, in comparison to neighbouring languages, such as Spanish, Italian and French (that lack this pronunciation).

There is dialectal variation in regard to:
* The pronunciation and distribution of [[sibilant]]s (with different results according to [[voicing (phonetics)|voicing]] and [[affrication]] vs. [[lenition|deaffrication]]).
** While, arguably there are seven to eight sibilants in Standard Catalan and Standard Valencian, dialects like Central Valencian and Ribagorçan only have three or four.
* The usage of the voiced labiodental fricative phoneme {{IPAslink|v}}.
* The pronunciation or not of [[yod (sound)|yod]] ({{IPAslink|j}}) in the digraph {{angbr|ix}}.
* The [[elision]] and pronunciation of final [[rhotic consonant|rhotics]] (either {{IPAslink|ɾ}} or {{IPAslink|r}}).
* The [[delateralization]] of the palatal lateral approximant ({{IPAslink|ʎ}}).
* The alternation of [[lenition]] vs. [[fortition]] (such as {{IPA|/b/}} in {{lang|ca|po'''b'''le}} 'village, people' → {{IPA|[β]}} vs. {{IPA|[b]}} vs. {{IPA|[bː]}} vs. {{IPA|[p]}} vs. {{IPA|[pː]}}).

=== Morphology ===
Western Catalan: In verbs, the ending for 1st-person present indicative is {{lang|ca|-e}} in verbs of the 1st conjugation and -∅ in verbs of the 2nd and 3rd conjugations in most of the Valencian Community, or {{lang|ca|-o}} in all verb conjugations in the Northern Valencian Community and Western Catalonia.<br />E.g. {{lang|ca|parle}}, {{lang|ca|tem}}, {{lang|ca|sent}} (Valencian); {{lang|ca|parlo}}, {{lang|ca|temo}}, {{lang|ca|sento}} (North-Western Catalan).

Eastern Catalan: In verbs, the ending for 1st-person present indicative is {{lang|ca|-o}}, {{lang|ca|-i}}, or -∅ in all conjugations. <br />E.g. {{lang|ca|parlo}} (Central), {{lang|ca|parl}} (Balearic), and {{lang|ca|parli}} (Northern), all meaning ('I speak').
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ 1st-person singular present indicative forms
|-
! colspan="3" , rowspan="2" | Conjugation !! colspan="3" | Eastern Catalan !! colspan="2" | Western Catalan !! rowspan="2" | Gloss
|-
! Central !! Northern !! Balearic !! Valencian !! North-Western
|-
! colspan="3" | 1st
| {{lang|ca|parlo}} || {{lang|ca|parli}} || {{lang|ca|parl}} || {{lang|ca|parle}} || {{lang|ca|parlo}} || 'I speak'
|-
! colspan="3" | 2nd
| {{lang|ca|temo}} || {{lang|ca|temi}} || {{lang|ca|tem}} || {{lang|ca|tem}} || {{lang|ca|temo}} || 'I fear'
|-
! colspan="2" , rowspan="2" | 3rd
! {{small|pure}}
| {{lang|ca|sento}} || {{lang|ca|senti}} || {{lang|ca|sent}} || {{lang|ca|sent}} || {{lang|ca|sento}} || 'I feel', 'I hear'
|-
! {{small|inchoative}}
| {{lang|ca|poleixo}} || {{lang|ca|poleixi}} || {{lang|ca|poleix}} or {{lang|ca|polesc}} || {{lang|ca|polisc}} or {{lang|ca|polesc}} || {{lang|ca|pol(e)ixo}} || 'I polish'
|}

Western Catalan: In verbs, the inchoative endings are {{lang|ca|-isc}}/{{lang|ca|-esc}}, {{lang|ca|-ix}}, {{lang|ca|-ixen}}, {{lang|ca|-isca}}/{{lang|ca|-esca}}.

Eastern Catalan: In verbs, the inchoative endings are {{lang|ca|-eixo}}, {{lang|ca|-eix}}, {{lang|ca|-eixen}}, {{lang|ca|-eixi}}.

Western Catalan: In nouns and adjectives, maintenance of {{IPA|/n/}} of medieval plurals in [[proparoxytone]] words.<br />E.g. {{lang|ca|hòmens}} 'men', {{lang|ca|jóvens}} 'youth'.

Eastern Catalan: In nouns and adjectives, loss of {{IPA|/n/}} of medieval plurals in proparoxytone words.<br />E.g. {{lang|ca|homes}} 'men', {{lang|ca|joves}} 'youth' (Ibicencan, however, follows the model of Western Catalan in this case<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moll, Francesc de B. |title=Gramática catalana; referida especialment a les Illes Balears |date=1968 |publisher=Editorial Moll |isbn=84-273-0044-1 |location=Palma de Mallorca |oclc=2108762}}</ref>).

=== Vocabulary ===
Despite its relative lexical unity, the two dialectal blocks of Catalan (Eastern and Western) show some differences in word choices.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} Any lexical divergence within any of the two groups can be explained as an archaism. Also, usually [[Central Catalan]] acts as an innovative element.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Selection of different words between Western and Eastern Catalan
|-
! Gloss !! "mirror" !! "boy" !! "broom" !! "navel" !! "to exit"
|-
! Eastern Catalan
| {{lang|ca|mirall}} || {{lang|ca|noi}} || {{lang|ca|escombra}} || {{lang|ca|llombrígol}} || {{lang|ca|sortir}}
|-
! Western Catalan
| {{lang|ca|espill}} || {{lang|ca|xiquet}} || {{lang|ca|granera}} || {{lang|ca|melic}} || {{lang|ca|eixir}}
|}