Editing Babylonia (section)

===Neo-Babylonian culture===
The brief resurgence of Babylonian culture in the 7th to 6th centuries BC was accompanied by a number of important cultural developments.

====Astronomy====
{{Main|Babylonian astronomy|Chronology of the ancient Near East}}
Among the sciences, [[astronomy]] and [[astrology]] still occupied a conspicuous place in Babylonian society. Astronomy was of old standing in Babylonia. The [[zodiac]] was a Babylonian invention of great antiquity; and [[eclipse]]s of the [[sun]] and [[moon]] could be foretold.{{sfn|Sayce|1911|p=107}} There are dozens of cuneiform records of original Mesopotamian eclipse observations.

Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of what was done in [[ancient Greek astronomy]], in classical, in Sasanian, [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and Syrian astronomy, [[astronomy in the medieval Islamic world]], and in [[Central Asia]]n and [[Western Europe]]an astronomy.{{sfn|Sayce|1911|p=107}}<ref name=pingree /> Neo-Babylonian astronomy can thus be considered the direct predecessor of much of ancient [[Greek mathematics]] and astronomy, which in turn is the historical predecessor of the European (Western) [[scientific revolution]].<ref name="Aaboe, Asger">Aaboe, A. (1992). Babylonian mathematics, astrology, and astronomy. In J. Boardman, I. Edwards, E. Sollberger, & N. Hammond (Eds.), ''[[The Cambridge Ancient History]]'' (The Cambridge Ancient History, pp. 276–292). [https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic Cambridge: Cambridge University Press]. [https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-ancient-history/firstmillennium-babylonian-literature/1725D8C46F6BD6AEA64AD9E3A5DA8FE2 doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521227179.010]</ref>

During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new approach to astronomy. They began studying [[philosophy]] dealing with the ideal nature of the early [[universe]] and began employing an [[consistency|internal logic]] within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the [[philosophy of science]] and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution.<ref name=Brown>D. Brown (2000), ''Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy-Astrology'', Styx Publications, {{ISBN|90-5693-036-2}}.</ref> This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy.

In [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] and Parthian times, the astronomical reports were of a thoroughly scientific character;{{sfn|Sayce|1911|p=107}} how much earlier their advanced knowledge and methods were developed is uncertain. The Babylonian development of methods for predicting the motions of the planets is considered to be a major episode in the [[Assyrian astronomy|history of astronomy]].

The only Babylonian astronomer known to have supported a [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] model of planetary motion was [[Seleucus of Seleucia]] (b. 190 BC).<ref>[[Otto E. Neugebauer]] (1945). "The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods", ''Journal of Near Eastern Studies'' '''4''' (1), pp. 1–38.</ref><ref>[[George Sarton]] (1955). "Chaldaean Astronomy of the Last Three Centuries B.C.", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' '''75''' (3), pp. 166–173 [169].</ref><ref>William P. D. Wightman (1951, 1953), ''The Growth of Scientific Ideas'', Yale University Press p. 38.</ref> Seleucus is known from the writings of [[Plutarch]]. He supported the heliocentric theory where the [[Earth's rotation|Earth rotated]] around its own axis which in turn revolved around the [[Sun]]. According to [[Plutarch]], Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known what arguments he used.

====Mathematics====
{{Main|Babylonian mathematics}}
Babylonian mathematical texts are plentiful and well edited.<ref name="Aaboe, Asger" /> In respect of time they fall in two distinct groups: one from the [[First Babylonian dynasty]] period (1830–1531 BC), the other mainly [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] from the last three or four centuries BC. In respect of content there is scarcely any difference between the two groups of texts. Thus Babylonian mathematics remained stale in character and content, with very little progress or innovation, for nearly two millennia.{{Dubious|date=April 2010}}<ref name="Aaboe, Asger" />

The Babylonian system of mathematics was [[sexagesimal]], or a base 60 [[Babylonian numerals|numeral system]]. From this we derive the modern-day usage of 60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour, and 360 (60 × 6) degrees in a circle. The Babylonians were able to make great advances in mathematics for two reasons. First, the number 60 has many [[divisor]]s (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, and 30), making calculations easier. Additionally, unlike the Egyptians and Romans, the Babylonians had a true place-value system, where digits written in the left column represented larger values (much as in our base-ten system: 734 = 7×100 + 3×10 + 4×1). Among the Babylonians' mathematical accomplishments were the determination of the [[square root of two]] correctly to seven places ([[YBC 7289]]). They also demonstrated knowledge of the [[Pythagorean theorem]] well before Pythagoras.

The ''ner'' of 600 and the ''sar'' of 3600 were formed from the unit of 60, corresponding with a degree of the [[equator]]. Tablets of squares and cubes, calculated from 1 to 60, have been found at [[Senkera]], and a people acquainted with the sun-dial, the clepsydra, the lever and the pulley, must have had no mean knowledge of mechanics. A [[Lead crystal|crystal]] lens, turned on the [[lathe]], was discovered by [[Austen Henry Layard]] at [[Nimrud]] along with glass vases bearing the name of Sargon; this could explain the excessive minuteness of some of the writing on the Assyrian tablets, and a lens may also have been used in the observation of the heavens.{{sfn|Sayce|1911|pp=107–108}}

The Babylonians might have been familiar with the general rules for measuring area. They are also known for the Babylonian mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about 11 kilometres (7&nbsp;mi) today. This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time. (Eves, Chapter 2) The Babylonians used also space time graphs to calculate the velocity of Jupiter. This is an idea that is considered highly modern, traced to the 14th century England and France and anticipating integral calculus.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ossendrijver |first1=Mathieu |title=Ancient Babylonian astronomers calculated Jupiter's position from the area under a time-velocity graph |issue=6272 |url=https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.aad8085 |journal=Science |volume=351 |pages=482–484 |language=en |doi=10.1126/science.aad8085 |pmid=26823423 |date=29 January 2016|bibcode=2016Sci...351..482O |s2cid=206644971 }}</ref>

====Philosophy====
{{Further|Babylonian literature#Philosophy}}
The origins of Babylonian philosophy can be traced back to early Mesopotamian [[wisdom literature]], which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularly [[ethics]], in the forms of [[dialectic]], [[Dialogue|dialog]]s, [[epic poetry]], [[folklore]], [[hymn]]s, [[lyrics]], [[prose]], and [[proverb]]s. Babylonian [[reasoning]] and [[rationality]] developed beyond [[Empiricism|empirical]] observation.<ref>Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' '''101''' (1), pp. 35–47.</ref>

It is possible that Babylonian philosophy had an influence on [[Greek philosophy]], particularly [[Hellenistic philosophy]]. The Babylonian text ''[[Dialogue of Pessimism]]'' contains similarities to the [[Agnostic]] thought of the [[Sophism|sophists]], the [[Heraclitus|Heraclitean]] doctrine of contrasts, and the dialogs of [[Plato]], as well as a precursor to the [[Maieutics|maieutic]] [[Socratic method]] of [[Socrates]].<ref>Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' '''101''' (1), pp. 35–47 [43].</ref> The [[Milesian school|Milesian]] philosopher [[Thales]] is also known to have studied philosophy in Mesopotamia.

According to the [[Assyriology|assyriologist]] [[Marc Van de Mieroop]], Babylonian philosophy was a highly developed system of thought with a unique approach to knowledge and a focus on writing, [[lexicography]], divination, and law.{{sfn|''Philosophy before the Greeks''|2015|pp=vii–viii, 187–188}} It was also a [[Multilingualism|bilingual]] intellectual culture, based on [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] and [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]].{{sfn|''Philosophy before the Greeks''|2015|p=218}}