Editing Arabic (section)

== Spoken varieties ==
{{Main|Varieties of Arabic}}
[[File:Arabic Varieties Map-2023.svg|thumb|center|upright=3|Geographical distribution of the varieties of Arabic per ''[[Ethnologue]]'' and [[:File:Arabic Varieties Map.svg|other sources]]:
{{legend-col|thumb size=wide
|{{legend|#ff4900|1: [[ISO 639:mey|Hassaniyya]]}}
|{{legend|#00c373|2: [[ISO 639:ary|{{ISO 639 name|ary}}]]}}
|{{legend|#009dff|3: [[ISO 639:aao|Algerian Saharan Arabic]]}}
|{{legend|#ff00d6|4: [[ISO 639:arq|{{ISO 639 name|arq}}]]}}
|{{legend|#ddb92f|5: [[ISO 639:aeb|{{ISO 639 name|aeb}}]]}}
|{{legend|#00ffbd|6: [[ISO 639:ayl|Libyan Arabic – Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic]]}}
|{{legend|#e7c075|7: [[ISO 639:arz|{{ISO 639 name|arz}}]]}}
|{{legend|#51cc29|8: [[ISO 639:avl|Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic]]}}
|{{legend|#298dcc|9: [[ISO 639:aec|Saidi Arabic]]}}
|{{legend|#cc29b2|10: [[ISO 639:shu|{{ISO 639 name|shu}}]]}}
|{{legend|#ccb929|11: [[ISO 639:apd|Sudanese Arabic]]}}
|{{legend|#29cca2|12: [[ISO 639:pga|Sudanese Creole Arabic]]}}
|{{legend|#ff9266|13: [[ISO 639:ars|{{ISO 639 name|ars}}]]}}
|{{legend|#66c4ff|14: [[ISO 639:apc|Levantine Arabic]]}}
|{{legend|#ea93f0|15: [[ISO 639:ayp|North Mesopotamian Arabic]]}}
|{{legend|#998e3d|16: [[ISO 639:acm|Mesopotamian Arabic]]}}
|{{legend|#66ffd8|17: [[ISO 639:afb|Gulf Arabic]]}}
|{{legend|#cc8366|18: [[ISO 639:abv|Baharna Arabic]]}}
|{{legend|#bae344|19: [[ISO 639:acw|Hijazi Arabic]]}}
|{{legend|#66a5cc|20: [[ISO 639:ssh|Shihhi Arabic]]}}
|{{legend|#cc66bc|21: [[ISO 639:acx|Omani Arabic]]}}
|{{legend|#ccc066|22: [[ISO 639:adf|Dhofari Arabic]]}}
|{{legend|#66ccb2|23: [[ISO 639:ayn|Sanaani Arabic]]}}
|{{legend|#f2ae92|24: [[ISO 639:acq|Ta'izzi-Adeni Arabic]]}}
|{{legend|#79ba3c|25: [[ISO 639:ayh|Hadrami Arabic]]}}
|{{legend|#91cdf2|26: [[ISO 639:auz|Uzbeki Arabic]]}}
|{{legend|#a786f2|27: [[ISO 639:abh|Tajiki Arabic]]}}
|{{legend|#a4a068|28: [[ISO 639:acy|Cypriot Arabic]]}}
|{{legend|#59a6b8|29: [[ISO 639:mlt|{{ISO 639 name|mt}}]]}}
|{{legend|#fc7183|30: [[ISO 639:kcn|Nubi]]}}
|{{legend|#fefee9ff|Sparsely populated area or no indigenous Arabic speakers}}
|Solid area fill: variety natively spoken by at least 25% of the population of that area or variety indigenous to that area only
|Hatched area fill: minority scattered over the area
|Dotted area fill: speakers of this variety are mixed with speakers of other Arabic varieties in the area
}}]]
''Colloquial Arabic'' is a collective term for the spoken dialects of Arabic used throughout the [[Arab world]], which differ radically from the [[literary language]]. The main dialectal division is between the varieties within and outside of the [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabian peninsula]], followed by that between [[Varieties of Arabic#Typological differences|sedentary]] varieties and the much more conservative [[Bedouin]] varieties. All the varieties outside of the Arabian peninsula, which include the large majority of speakers, have many features in common with each other that are not found in Classical Arabic. This has led researchers to postulate the existence of a prestige [[Koiné language|koine]] dialect in the one or two centuries immediately following the [[Early Muslim conquests|Arab conquest]], whose features eventually spread to all newly conquered areas. These features are present to varying degrees inside the Arabian peninsula. Generally, the Arabian peninsula varieties have much more diversity than the non-peninsula varieties, but these have been understudied.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}
[[File:Ibn_al-Bawwab_-_Qurʾan_f._278v-279r.jpg|thumb|274x274px|A copy of the Qur'an by [[Ibn al-Bawwab]] in the year 1000/1001 CE, thought to be the earliest existing example of a Qur'an written in a cursive script.]]
Within the non-peninsula varieties, the largest difference is between the non-Egyptian [[Maghrebi Arabic|North African dialects]], especially [[Moroccan Arabic]], and the others. Moroccan Arabic in particular is hardly comprehensible to Arabic speakers east of [[Libya]] (although the converse is not true, in part due to the popularity of Egyptian films and other media).{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

One factor in the differentiation of the dialects is influence from the languages previously spoken in the areas, which have typically provided many new words and have sometimes also influenced pronunciation or word order. However, a more weighty factor for most dialects is, as among [[Romance languages]], retention (or change of meaning) of different classical forms. Thus [[Mesopotamian Arabic|Iraqi]] ''aku'', [[Levantine Arabic|Levantine]] and [[Peninsular Arabic|Peninsular]] ''fīh'' and [[Maghrebi Arabic|North African]] ''kayən'' all mean 'there is', and all come from Classical Arabic forms (''yakūn'', ''fīhi'', ''kā'in'' respectively), but now sound very different.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

=== Koiné ===
According to [[Charles A. Ferguson]],<ref>{{citation|first=Charles|last=Ferguson|title=The Arabic Koine|journal=Language|volume=35|year=1959|pages=616–630|issue=4|doi=10.2307/410601|jstor=410601}}</ref> the following are some of the characteristic features of the [[Koiné language|koiné]] that underlies all the modern dialects outside the Arabian peninsula. Although many other features are common to most or all of these varieties, Ferguson believes that these features in particular are unlikely to have evolved independently more than once or twice and together suggest the existence of the koine:
* Loss of the [[dual (grammatical number)|dual number]] except on nouns, with consistent plural agreement (cf. feminine singular agreement in plural inanimates).
* Change of ''a'' to ''i'' in many affixes (e.g., non-past-tense prefixes ''ti- yi- ni-''; ''wi-'' 'and'; ''il-'' 'the'; feminine ''-it'' in the [[construct state]]).
* Loss of third-weak verbs ending in ''w'' (which merge with verbs ending in ''y'').
* Reformation of geminate verbs, e.g., ''{{transliteration|ar|ḥalaltu}}'' 'I untied' → ''{{transliteration|ar|ḥalēt(u)}}''.
* Conversion of separate words ''lī'' 'to me', ''laka'' 'to you', etc. into indirect-object [[clitic]] suffixes.
* Certain changes in the [[cardinal number (linguistics)|cardinal number]] system, e.g., ''{{transliteration|ar|khamsat ayyām}}'' 'five days' → ''{{transliteration|ar|kham(a)s tiyyām}}'', where certain words have a special plural with prefixed ''t''.
* Loss of the feminine [[elative (gradation)|elative]] (comparative).
* Adjective plurals of the form ''{{transliteration|ar|kibār}}'' 'big' → ''{{transliteration|ar|kubār}}''.
* Change of [[Arabic grammar#Nisba|nisba]] suffix ''{{transliteration|ar|-iyy}}'' > ''{{transliteration|ar|i}}''.
* Certain [[lexical item]]s, e.g., ''{{transliteration|ar|jāb}}'' 'bring' < ''{{transliteration|ar|jāʼa bi-}}'' 'come with'; ''{{transliteration|ar|shāf}}'' 'see'; ''{{transliteration|ar|ēsh}}'' 'what' (or similar) < ''{{transliteration|ar|ayyu shayʼ}}'' 'which thing'; ''{{transliteration|ar|illi}}'' (relative pronoun).
* Merger of {{IPA|/dˤ/}} {{angle bracket|{{lang|ar|ض}}}} and {{IPA|/ðˤ/}} {{angle bracket|{{lang|ar|ظ}}}} in most or all positions.

=== Dialect groups ===
* [[Egyptian Arabic]], spoken by 67 million people in [[Egypt]].<ref name="ARZ">{{e25|arz|Arabic, Egyptian Spoken}}</ref> It is one of the most understood varieties of Arabic, due in large part to the widespread distribution of Egyptian films and television shows throughout the Arabic-speaking world.
* [[Levantine Arabic]], spoken by about 44 million people in [[Lebanon]], [[Syria]], [[Jordan]], [[Palestine]], [[Israel]], and [[Turkey]].<ref name="e25apc">{{e25|apc|Levantine Arabic}}</ref>
** [[Lebanese Arabic]] is a [[Varieties of Arabic|variety]] of [[Levantine Arabic]] spoken primarily in [[Lebanon]].
** [[Jordanian Arabic]] is a continuum of mutually intelligible varieties of [[Levantine Arabic]] spoken by the population of the [[Kingdom of Jordan]].
** [[Palestinian Arabic]] is a name of several dialects of the subgroup of [[Levantine Arabic]] spoken by the Palestinians in [[Palestinian National Authority|Palestine]], by [[Arab citizens of Israel]] and in most Palestinian populations around the world.
** [[Samaritan Arabic]], spoken by only several hundred in the [[Nablus]] region.
* [[Cypriot Maronite Arabic]], spoken in [[Cyprus]] by around 9,800 people (2013 UNSD).<ref>{{e25|acy|Arabic, Cypriot Spoken}}</ref>
* [[Maghrebi Arabic]], also called "Darija", spoken by about 70 million people in [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]], [[Tunisia]] and [[Libya]]. It also forms the basis of [[Maltese language|Maltese]] via the extinct [[Siculo-Arabic|Sicilian Arabic]] dialect.<ref name="Borg, Albert J. 1997">Borg, Albert J.; Azzopardi-Alexander, Marie (1997). Maltese. Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-02243-6}}.</ref> [[Maghrebi Arabic]] is very hard to understand for Arabic speakers from the [[Mashriq]] or [[Mesopotamia]], the most comprehensible being [[Libyan Arabic]] and the most difficult [[Moroccan Arabic]]. The others such as [[Algerian Arabic]] can be considered in between the two in terms of difficulty.
** [[Libyan Arabic]], spoken in [[Libya]] and neighboring countries.
** [[Tunisian Arabic]], spoken in [[Tunisia]] and north-eastern [[Algeria]].
** [[Algerian Arabic]], spoken in [[Algeria]].
*** [[Judeo-Algerian Arabic]] was spoken by [[History of the Jews in Algeria|Jews]] in [[Algeria]] until 1962, now it is spoken by a few elderly [[History of the Jews in Algeria|Algerian Jews]] in France and Israel.
** [[Moroccan Arabic]], spoken in [[Morocco]].
** [[Hassaniya Arabic]] (3 million speakers), spoken in [[Mauritania]], [[Western Sahara]], some parts of the [[Azawad]] in northern [[Mali]], southern [[Morocco]], and south-western [[Algeria]].
** [[Andalusian Arabic]], spoken in [[Spain]] until the 16th century.
** [[Siculo-Arabic]] ([[Sicilian Arabic]]), was spoken in [[Sicily]] and [[Malta]] between the end of the 9th century and the end of the 12th century and eventually evolved into the [[Maltese language]].
*** [[Maltese language|Maltese]], spoken on the [[Malta|island of Malta]], is the only fully separate standardized language to have originated from an Arabic dialect, the extinct [[Siculo-Arabic]] dialect, with independent literary norms. Maltese has evolved independently of Modern Standard Arabic and its varieties into a standardized language over the past 800 years in a gradual process of [[Romanization of Arabic|Latinisation]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Borg and Azzopardi-Alexander|title=Maltese|date=1997| publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-02243-9|page=xiii|quote=In fact, Maltese displays some areal traits typical of Maghrebine Arabic, although over the past 800 years of independent evolution it has drifted apart from Tunisian Arabic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tYf-fZ-izycC&pg=PR13 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Brincat, Joseph M. |date=Feb 2005 |publisher=MED Magazine |title=Maltese – an unusual formula|quote=Originally Maltese was an Arabic dialect but it was immediately exposed to Latinisation because the Normans conquered the islands in 1090, while Christianisation, which was complete by 1250, cut off the dialect from contact with Classical Arabic. Consequently Maltese developed on its own, slowly but steadily absorbing new words from Sicilian and Italian according to the needs of the developing community.|url=http://macmillandictionaries.com/MED-Magazine/February2005/27-LI-Maltese.htm|access-date=17 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208063739/http://macmillandictionaries.com/MED-Magazine/February2005/27-LI-Maltese.htm|archive-date=8 December 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Maltese is therefore considered an exceptional descendant of Arabic that has no [[diglossia|diglossic]] relationship with [[Standard Arabic]] or [[Classical Arabic]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Robert D Hoberman|title=Morphologies of Asia and Africa, Alan S. Kaye (Ed.), Chapter 13: Maltese Morphology|date=2007|publisher=Eisenbrown|quote=Maltese is the chief exception: Classical or Standard Arabic is irrelevant in the Maltese linguistic community and there is no diglossia.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gaktTQ8vq28C&pg=PA257|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004103929/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gaktTQ8vq28C&pg=PA257|archive-date=4 October 2018|url-status=live|isbn=978-1-57506-109-2}}</ref> Maltese is different from Arabic and other [[Semitic languages]] since its [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] has been deeply influenced by [[Romance languages]], [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Robert D Hoberman|title=Morphologies of Asia and Africa, Alan S. Kaye (Ed.), Chapter 13: Maltese Morphology|date=2007|publisher=Eisenbrown|quote=yet it is in its morphology that Maltese also shows the most elaborate and deeply embedded influence from the Romance languages, Sicilian and Italian, with which it has long been in intimate contact....As a result Maltese is unique and different from Arabic and other Semitic languages.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gaktTQ8vq28C&pg=PA257|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004103929/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gaktTQ8vq28C&pg=PA257|archive-date=4 October 2018|url-status=live|isbn=978-1-57506-109-2}}</ref> It is the only Semitic language written in the [[Latin script]]. In terms of basic everyday language, speakers of Maltese are reported to be able to understand less than a third of what is said to them in [[Tunisian Arabic]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Mutual Intelligibility of Spoken Maltese, Libyan Arabic and Tunisian Arabic Functionally Tested: A Pilot Study|quote=To summarise our findings, we might observe that when it comes to the most basic everyday language, as reflected in our data sets, speakers of Maltese are able to understand less than a third of what is being said to them in either Tunisian or Benghazi Libyan Arabic.|url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embedded=true&chrome=false&dov=1|access-date=23 September 2017|page=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011132849/https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embedded=true&chrome=false&dov=1|archive-date=11 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> which is related to Siculo-Arabic,<ref name="Borg, Albert J. 1997" /> whereas speakers of Tunisian are able to understand about 40% of what is said to them in Maltese.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mutual Intelligibility of Spoken Maltese, Libyan Arabic and Tunisian Arabic Functionally Tested: A Pilot Study|quote=Speakers of Tunisian and Libyan Arabic are able to understand about 40% of what is said to them in Maltese.|url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embedded=true&chrome=false&dov=1|access-date=23 September 2017|page=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011132849/https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embedded=true&chrome=false&dov=1|archive-date=11 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> This [[mutual intelligibility|asymmetric intelligibility]] is considerably lower than the [[mutual intelligibility]] found between Maghrebi Arabic dialects.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mutual Intelligibility of Spoken Maltese, Libyan Arabic and Tunisian Arabic Functionally Tested: A Pilot Study|quote=In comparison, speakers of Libyan Arabic and speakers of Tunisian Arabic understand about two-thirds of what is being said to them.|url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embedded=true&chrome=false&dov=1|access-date=23 September 2017|page=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011132849/https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embedded=true&chrome=false&dov=1|archive-date=11 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Maltese has its own dialects, with urban varieties of Maltese being closer to Standard Maltese than rural varieties.<ref name="isser">Isserlin (1986). ''Studies in Islamic History and Civilization'', {{ISBN|965-264-014-X}}</ref>
* [[Mesopotamian Arabic]], spoken by about 41.2 million people in [[Iraq]] (where it is called "Aamiyah"), eastern [[Syria]] and southwestern [[Iran]] ([[Khuzestan Province|Khuzestan]]) and in the southeastern of [[Turkey]] (in the eastern [[Mediterranean Region, Turkey|Mediterranean]], [[Southeastern Anatolia Region]]).
**[[North Mesopotamian Arabic]] is a spoken north of the [[Hamrin Mountains]] in [[Iraq]], in western [[Iran]], northern [[Syria]], and in southeastern [[Turkey]] (in the eastern [[Mediterranean Region, Turkey|Mediterranean Region]], [[Southeastern Anatolia Region]], and southern [[Eastern Anatolia Region]]).<ref>{{e25|ayp|Arabic, North Mesopotamian Spoken}}</ref>
**[[Judeo-Iraqi Arabic|Judeo-Mesopotamian Arabic]], also known as Iraqi Judeo Arabic and Yahudic, is a variety of Arabic spoken by [[History of the Jews in Iraq|Iraqi Jews]] of [[Mosul]].
**[[Baghdad Arabic]] is the Arabic dialect spoken in [[Baghdad]], and the surrounding cities and it is a subvariety of [[Mesopotamian Arabic]].
**[[Baghdad Jewish Arabic]] is the dialect spoken by the [[History of the Jews in Iraq|Iraqi Jews]] of [[Baghdad]].
**[[South Mesopotamian Arabic]] (Basrawi dialect) is the dialect spoken in southern [[Iraq]], such as [[Basra]], [[Dhi Qar Governorate|Dhi Qar]], and [[Najaf]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Müller-Kessler|first=Christa|date=2003|title=Aramaic ?k?, lyk? and Iraqi Arabic ?aku, maku: The Mesopotamian Particles of Existence|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3217756|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=123|issue=3|pages=641–646|doi=10.2307/3217756|jstor=3217756|issn=0003-0279}}</ref>
**[[Khuzestani Arabic]], spoken in the Iranian province of [[Khuzestan Province|Khuzestan]]. This is a mix of [[South Mesopotamian Arabic|Southern Mesopotamian Arabic]] and [[Gulf Arabic]].
* [[Khorasani Arabic]], spoken in the Iranian province of [[Khorasan Province|Khorasan]].
*[[Kuwaiti Arabic]] is a [[Gulf Arabic]] [[dialect]] spoken in [[Kuwait]].
* [[Sudanese Arabic]], spoken by 17 million people in [[Sudan]] and some parts of southern [[Egypt]]. Sudanese Arabic is quite distinct from the dialect of its neighbor to the north; rather, the Sudanese have a dialect similar to the Hejazi dialect.
* [[Juba Arabic]], spoken in [[South Sudan]] and southern far [[Sudan]].
* [[Gulf Arabic]], spoken by around four million people, predominantly in [[Kuwait]], [[Bahrain]], some parts of [[Oman]], eastern [[Saudi Arabia]] coastal areas and some parts of [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]] and [[Qatar]]. Also spoken in [[Iran]]'s [[Bushehr Province|Bushehr]] and [[Hormozgan Province|Hormozgan]] provinces. Although Gulf Arabic is spoken in [[Qatar]], most Qatari citizens speak [[Najdi Arabic]] (Bedawi).
* [[Omani Arabic]], distinct from the [[Gulf Arabic]] of [[Eastern Arabia]] and [[Bahrain]], spoken in Central [[Oman]]. With its oil wealth and mobility it has spread to various areas of the former [[Sultanate of Muscat]], especially [[Zanzibar]] and the [[Swahili Coast]].
* [[Hadhrami Arabic]], spoken by around 8 million people, predominantly in [[Hadhramaut]], and in parts of the [[Arabian Peninsula]], [[South Asia|South]] and [[Southeast Asia]], and [[East Africa]] by [[Hadhrami people|Hadhrami]] descendants.
** [[Indonesian Arabic]], spoken in Arab ethnic enclaves in [[Indonesia]], especially along the north coast of [[Java]]. It has about 60,000 speakers according to a rough estimate in 2010.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Evi Nurus Suroiyah |last2=Dewi Anisatuz Zakiyah |date=2021-06-07 |title=Perkembangan Bahasa Arab di Indonesia |trans-title=Development of Arabic in Indonesia |url=https://ejournal.iaiskjmalang.ac.id/index.php/muhad/article/view/302 |journal=Muhadasah: Jurnal Pendidikan Bahasa Arab |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=60–69 |doi=10.51339/muhad.v3i1.302 |issn=2721-9488|doi-access=free |language=id}}</ref>
* [[Yemeni Arabic]], spoken in [[Yemen]], and southern [[Saudi Arabia]] by 15 million people. Similar to [[Gulf Arabic]].
* [[Najdi Arabic]], spoken by around 10 million people, mainly spoken in [[Najd]], central and northern [[Saudi Arabia]]. Most Qatari citizens speak Najdi Arabic (Bedawi).
* [[Hejazi Arabic]] (6 million speakers), spoken in [[Hejaz]], western [[Saudi Arabia]].
* [[Saharan Arabic]] spoken in some parts of [[Algeria]], [[Niger]] and [[Mali]].
* [[Baharna Arabic]] (800,000 speakers), spoken by [[Bahrani people|Bahrani Shias]] in [[Bahrain]] and [[Qatif]], the dialect exhibits many big differences from [[Gulf Arabic]]. It is also spoken to a lesser extent in [[Oman]].
* [[Judeo-Arabic languages|Judeo-Arabic]] dialects – these are the dialects spoken by the [[Jews]] that had lived or continue to live in the [[Arab world|Arab World]]. As Jewish migration to Israel took hold, the language did not thrive and is now considered endangered. So-called Qəltu Arabic.
* [[Chadian Arabic]], spoken in [[Chad]], [[Sudan]], some parts of [[South Sudan]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], and [[Cameroon]].
* [[Central Asian Arabic]], spoken in [[Uzbekistan]], [[Tajikistan]], and [[Afghanistan]] by around 8,000 people.<ref>{{e25|abh|Arabic, Tajiki Spoken}}</ref><ref>{{citation|chapter=Central Asian Arabic: The Irano-Arabic Dynamics of a New Perfect|doi=10.4324/9780203327715-12 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.4324/9780203327715-12/central-asian-arabic-irano-arabic-dynamics-new-perfect-%C3%A9va-%C3%A1gnes-csat%C3%B3-bo-isaksson-carina-jahani|access-date=14 January 2023|title=Linguistic Convergence and Areal Diffusion |year=2004 |pages=121–134 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780203327715 }}</ref> Tajiki Arabic is highly endangered.<ref name="ELTajiki">{{Citation|title=Tajiki Spoken Arabic|url=https://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/3585|website=Endangered Languages|access-date=14 January 2023}}</ref>
* [[Shirvani Arabic]], spoken in [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Dagestan]] until the 1930s, now extinct.