Editing Altruism (section)

=== Characteristics of extreme altruists ===

* Norms

In 1970, Schwartz hypothesised that extreme altruism is positively related to a person's moral norms and is not influenced by the cost associated with the action.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Rusch |first=Hannes |date=2022 |title=Heroic behavior: A review of the literature on high-stakes altruism in the wild |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology|volume=43 |pages=238–243 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.07.024|pmid=34454246 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This hypothesis was supported in the same study examining bone marrow donors. Schwartz discovered that individuals with strong personal norms and those who attribute more responsibility to themselves are more inclined to participate in bone marrow donation.<ref name=":3" /> Similar findings were observed in a 1986 study by Piliavin and Libby focusing on blood donors.<ref name=":8" /> These studies suggest that personal norms lead to the activation of moral norms, leading individuals to feel compelled to help others.<ref name=":3" />

* Enhanced Fear Recognition

Abigail Marsh has described psychopaths as the "opposite" group of people to extreme altruists<ref name=":8">{{cite journal |last1=Marsh |first1=Abigail A. |title=Understanding amygdala responsiveness to fearful expressions through the lens of psychopathy and altruism |journal=Journal of Neuroscience Research |date=June 2016 |volume=94 |issue=6 |pages=513–525 |doi=10.1002/jnr.23668 |pmid=26366635 }}</ref> and has conducted a few research, comparing these two groups of individuals. Utilising techniques such as brain imaging and behavioural experiments, Marsh's team observed that kidney donors tend to have larger amygdala sizes and exhibit better abilities in recognizing fearful expressions compared to psychopathic individuals.<ref name=":0" /> Furthermore, an improved ability to recognize fear has been associated with an increase in prosocial behaviours, including greater charity contribution.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marsh |first1=Abigail A. |last2=Kozak |first2=Megan N. |last3=Ambady |first3=Nalini |date=2007 |title=Accurate identification of fear facial expressions predicts prosocial behavior |journal=Emotion |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=239–251 |doi=10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.239 |pmc=2743452 |pmid=17516803 }}</ref>

* Fast Decisions when Perform Acts of Extreme Altruism

Rand and Epstein explored the behaviours of 51 Carnegie Hero Medal Recipients, demonstrating how extreme altruistic behaviours often stem from system I of the [[Dual process theory|Dual Process Theory]], which leads to rapid and intuitive behaviours.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last1=Rand |first1=David G. |last2=Epstein |first2=Ziv G. |title=Risking Your Life without a Second Thought: Intuitive Decision-Making and Extreme Altruism |journal=PLOS ONE |date=15 October 2014 |volume=9 |issue=10 |pages=e109687 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0109687 |pmid=25333876 |doi-access=free |pmc=4198114 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j9687R }}</ref> Additionally, a separate by Carlson et al. indicated that such prosocial behaviours are prevalent in emergencies where immediate actions are required.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carlson |first1=Ryan W. |last2=Aknin |first2=Lara B. |last3=Liotti |first3=Mario |title=When is giving an impulse? An ERP investigation of intuitive prosocial behavior |journal=Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience |date=July 2016 |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=1121–1129 |doi=10.1093/scan/nsv077 |pmc=4927032 |pmid=26084530 }}</ref>

This discovery has led to ethical debates, particularly in the context of living organ donation, where laws regarding this issue differ by country.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-33799-4 |title=Regulations Regarding Living Organ Donation in Europe |date=2013 |last1=Lopp |first1=Leonie |isbn=978-3-642-33798-7 |page=15 }}</ref> As observed in extreme altruists, these decisions are made intuitively, which may reflect insufficient consideration. Critics are concerned about whether this rapid decision encompasses a thorough cost-benefit analysis and question the appropriateness of exposing donors to such risk.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Friedman Ross |first1=Lainie |last2=Glannon |first2=Walter |last3=Josephson |first3=Michelle A. |last4=Thistlethwaite |first4=J. Richard |title=Should all living donors be treated equally? |journal=Transplantation |date=August 2002 |volume=74 |issue=3 |pages=418–421 |doi=10.1097/00007890-200208150-00025 |pmid=12177627 }}</ref>

* Social discounting

One finding suggests how extreme altruists exhibit lower levels of social discounting as compared to others. With that meaning extreme altruists place a higher value on the welfare of strangers than a typical person does.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vekaria |first1=Kruti M. |last2=Brethel-Haurwitz |first2=Kristin M. |last3=Cardinale |first3=Elise M. |last4=Stoycos |first4=Sarah A. |last5=Marsh |first5=Abigail A. |title=Social discounting and distance perceptions in costly altruism |journal=Nature Human Behaviour |date=28 April 2017 |volume=1 |issue=5 |doi=10.1038/s41562-017-0100 }}</ref>

* Low Social-Economic Status

Analysis of 676 [[Carnegie Hero Fund|Carnegie Hero Award Recipients]]<ref name=":5">{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Ronald C. |title=Attributes of carnegie medalists performing acts of heroism and of the recipients of these acts |journal=Ethology and Sociobiology |date=September 1996 |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=355–362 |doi=10.1016/S0162-3095(96)00059-3 }}</ref> and another study on 243 rescuing acts<ref name=":6">{{cite journal |last1=Lyons |first1=Minna T. |title=Who are the Heroes? Characteristics of People Who Rescue Others |journal=Journal of Cultural and Evolutionary Psychology |date=September 2005 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=245–254 |doi=10.1556/JCEP.3.2005.3-4.2 }}</ref> reveal that a significant proportion of rescuers come from lower socio-economic backgrounds. Johnson attributes the distribution to the high-risk occupations that are more prevalent between lower socioeconomic groups.<ref name=":5" /> Another hypothesis proposed by Lyons is that individuals from these groups may perceive they have less to lose when engaging in high-risk extreme altruistic behaviours.<ref name=":6" />