Editing Adolescence (section)

===Relationships===

====In general====
The relationships adolescents have with their peers, family, and members of their social sphere play a vital role in the social development of an adolescent. As an adolescent's social sphere develops rapidly as they distinguish the differences between friends and acquaintances, they often become heavily emotionally invested in friends.<ref name="Adolescent peer pressure">{{cite web|title=Adolescents and Peer Pressure|publisher=[[University of Michigan]]|access-date=November 6, 2012|url=http://sitemaker.umich.edu/356.darnell/peer_pressure|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121212114507/http://sitemaker.umich.edu/356.darnell/peer_pressure|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 12, 2012}}{{self-published inline|date=October 2022}}</ref> This is not harmful; however, if these friends expose an individual to potentially harmful situations, this is an aspect of [[peer pressure]]. Adolescence is a critical period in social development because adolescents can be easily influenced by the people they develop close relationships with. This is the first time individuals can truly make their own decisions, which also makes this a sensitive period. Relationships are vital in the social development of an adolescent due to the extreme influence peers can have over an individual. These relationships become significant because they begin to help the adolescent understand the concept of personalities, how they form and why a person has that specific type of personality. "The use of psychological comparisons could serve both as an index of the growth of an implicit personality theory and as a component process accounting for its creation. In other words, by comparing one person's personality characteristics to another's, we would be setting up the framework for creating a general theory of personality (and,&nbsp;... such a theory would serve as a useful framework for coming to understand specific persons)."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barenboim |first1=Carl |title=The Development of Person Perception in Childhood and Adolescence: From Behavioral Comparisons to Psychological Constructs to Psychological Comparisons |journal=Child Development |date=March 1981 |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=129–144 |doi=10.2307/1129222 |jstor=1129222 }}</ref> This can be likened to the use of social comparison in developing one's identity and self-concept, which includes ones personality, and underscores the importance of communication, and thus relationships, in one's development. In social comparison we use reference groups, with respect to both psychological and identity development.<ref>Adler, R.B., Rosenfeld, L.B., Proctor, R.F., & Winder, C. (2012). "Interplay: The Process of Interpersonal Communication, Third Canadian Edition" Oxford University Press. pp. 42–45</ref> These reference groups are the peers of adolescents. This means that who the teen chooses/accepts as their friends and who they communicate with on a frequent basis often makes up their reference groups and can therefore have a huge impact on who they become. Research shows that relationships have the largest affect over the social development of an individual.

====Family====
{{See also|Depression in childhood and adolescence|Sibling relationship}}
[[File:James Collinson - The Sisters.jpg|thumb|180px|''[[The Sisters (Collinson)|The Sisters]]'', by James Collinson]]
Adolescence marks a rapid change in one's role within a family. Young children tend to assert themselves forcefully, but are unable to demonstrate much influence over family decisions until early adolescence,<ref>Grotevant, H. (1997). Adolescent development in family contexts. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), ''Handbook of child psychology'' (5th ed.), Vol. 3: ''Social, emotional, and personality development'', pp. 1097–1149. New York: Wiley.</ref> when they are increasingly viewed by parents as equals. The adolescent faces the task of increasing independence while preserving a caring relationship with his or her parents.<ref name="Rawlins"/> When children go through puberty, there is often a significant increase in parent–child conflict and a less cohesive familial bond. Arguments often concern minor issues of control, such as curfew, acceptable clothing, and the adolescent's [[right to privacy]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Steinberg |first1=Laurence |title=We Know Some Things: Parent-Adolescent Relationships in Retrospect and Prospect |journal=Journal of Research on Adolescence |date=March 2001 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=1–19 |doi=10.1111/1532-7795.00001 |s2cid=54649194 }}</ref> which adolescents may have previously viewed as issues over which their parents had complete authority.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smetana |first1=Judith G. |title=Adolescents' and Parents' Conceptions of Parental Authority |journal=Child Development |date=April 1988 |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=321–335 |doi=10.2307/1130313 |pmid=3359858 |jstor=1130313 }}</ref> Parent-adolescent disagreement also increases as friends demonstrate a greater impact on one another, new influences on the adolescent that may be in opposition to parents' values. Social media has also played an increasing role in adolescent and parent disagreements.<ref name="Teens Today">{{cite web|url=http://www.theantidrug.com/advice/teens-today/teens-and-technology/social-networking.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103162953/http://www.theantidrug.com/advice/teens-today/teens-and-technology/social-networking.aspx|archive-date=November 3, 2012|title=Social Networking|publisher=theantidrug.com|access-date=November 6, 2012}}</ref> While parents never had to worry about the threats of social media in the past, it has become a dangerous place for children. While adolescents strive for their freedoms, the unknowns to parents of what their child is doing on social media sites is a challenging subject, due to the increasing amount of predators on social media sites. Many parents have very little knowledge of social networking sites in the first place and this further increases their mistrust. An important challenge for the parent–adolescent relationship is to understand how to enhance the opportunities of online communication while managing its risks.<ref name="Valkenburg & Peter 2011"/> Although conflicts between children and parents increase during adolescence, these are just relatively minor issues. Regarding their important life issues, most adolescents still share the same attitudes and values as their parents.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Neil R.|author2=Carlson C.|author3=Donald Heth|title=Psychology the Science of Behaviour, 4th Canadian Edition}}</ref>

During [[childhood]], siblings are a source of conflict and frustration as well as a support system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lempers |first1=Jacques D. |last2=Clark-Lempers |first2=Dania S. |title=Young, middle, and late adolescents' comparisons of the functional importance of five significant relationships |journal=Journal of Youth and Adolescence |date=February 1992 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=53–96 |doi=10.1007/BF01536983 |pmid=24263682 |s2cid=40262274 }}</ref> Adolescence may affect this relationship differently, depending on sibling gender. In same-sex sibling pairs, intimacy increases during early adolescence, then remains stable. Mixed-sex siblings pairs act differently; siblings drift apart during early adolescent years, but experience an increase in intimacy starting at middle adolescence.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Ji-Yeon |last2=McHale |first2=Susan M. |last3=Wayne Osgood |first3=D. |last4=Crouter |first4=Ann C. |title=Longitudinal Course and Family Correlates of Sibling Relationships From Childhood Through Adolescence |journal=Child Development |date=November 2006 |volume=77 |issue=6 |pages=1746–1761 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00971.x |pmid=17107458 }}</ref> Sibling interactions are children's first relational experiences, the ones that shape their social and self-understanding for life.<ref>{{cite magazine|author=Marano, Hara Estroff|title=Oh, Brother!|date=July 1, 2010|magazine=Psychology Today|volume=43|issue=4|pages=54–61|publisher=SIRS Researcher|access-date=October 25, 2010|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/201007/oh-brother}}</ref> Sustaining positive sibling relations can assist adolescents in a number of ways. Siblings are able to act as peers, and may increase one another's sociability and feelings of self-worth. Older siblings can give guidance to younger siblings, although the impact of this can be either positive or negative depending on the activity of the older sibling.

A potential important influence on adolescence is change of the family dynamic, specifically divorce. With the divorce rate up to about 50%,<ref>U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, updated and revised from "Families and Work in Transition in 12 Countries,1980–2001," Monthly Labor Review, September 2003</ref> divorce is common and adds to the already great amount of change in adolescence. [[Child custody|Custody]] disputes soon after a divorce often reflect a playing out of control battles and ambivalence between parents. Divorce usually results in less contact between the adolescent and their noncustodial parent.<ref name="Vangelisti">{{Citation |last=Vangelisti |first=A.L. |title= Handbook of family communication |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |place=New Jersey |year=2004}}</ref> In extreme cases of instability and abuse in homes, divorce can have a positive effect on families due to less conflict in the home. However, most research suggests a negative effect on adolescence as well as later development. A recent study found that, compared with peers who grow up in stable post-divorce families, children of divorce who experience additional family transitions during late adolescence, make less progress in their math and social studies performance over time.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Sun Y. |author2=Li Y. | year = 2009 | title = Postdivorce family stability and changes in adolescents' academic performance: A growth-curve model | journal = Journal of Family Issues | volume = 30 | issue = 11| pages = 1527–1555 | doi=10.1177/0192513x09339022 }}</ref> Another recent study put forth a new theory entitled the adolescent epistemological trauma theory,<ref name="Ziemer"/> which posited that traumatic life events such as parental divorce during the formative period of late adolescence portend lifelong effects on adult conflict behavior that can be mitigated by effective behavioral assessment and training.<ref name="Ziemer">{{cite thesis |id={{ProQuest|1018397533}} |last1=Ziemer |first1=Brian S |year=2012 |title=Epistemological Effects of Divorce During Adolescence On Adult Conflict Behavior }}</ref> A parental divorce during childhood or adolescence continues to have a negative effect when a person is in his or her twenties and early thirties. These negative effects include romantic relationships and conflict style, meaning as adults, they are more likely to use the styles of avoidance and competing in conflict management.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cherlin |first1=Andrew J. |last2=Chase-Lansdale |first2=P. Lindsay |last3=McRae |first3=Christine |title=Effects of Parental Divorce on Mental Health Throughout the Life Course |journal=American Sociological Review |date=April 1998 |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=239–249 |doi=10.2307/2657325 |jstor=2657325 }}</ref>

Despite changing family roles during adolescence, the home environment and parents are still important for the behaviors and choices of adolescents.<ref name="trends">{{cite book |last1=Aufseeser |first1=Dena |last2=Jekielek |first2=Susan |last3=Brown |first3=Brett |title=The Family Environment and Adolescent Well-Being: Exposure to Positive and Negative Family Influences |date=June 2006 |id={{ERIC|ED510628}} |oclc=652132631 |publisher=Child Trends |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060822130027/http://www.childtrends.org/Files/FamilyEnvironmentRB.pdf |archive-date=August 22, 2006 |url=http://www.childtrends.org/Files/FamilyEnvironmentRB.pdf }}</ref> Adolescents who have a good relationship with their parents are less likely to engage in various risk behaviors, such as smoking, drinking, fighting or unprotected [[sexual intercourse]].<ref name = "trends" />
In addition, parents influence the education of adolescence. A study conducted by Adalbjarnardottir and Blondal (2009) showed that adolescents at the age of 14 who identify their parents as authoritative figures are more likely to complete secondary education by the age of 22—as support and encouragement from an authoritative parent motivates the adolescence to complete schooling to avoid disappointing that parent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Blondal |first1=Kristjana S. |last2=Adalbjarnardottir |first2=Sigrun |title=Parenting practices and school dropout: a longitudinal study |journal=Adolescence |date=22 December 2009 |volume=44 |issue=176 |pages=729–750 |id={{Gale|A217847446}} |pmid=20432598 }}</ref>

====Peers====
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Peer groups are essential to social and general development. Communication with peers increases significantly during adolescence and peer relationships become more intense than in other stages<ref>Papalia, D.E., Olds, S.W., Feldman, R.D., & Kruk, R. (2004). ''A Child's World: Infancy through Adolescence (First Canadian Ed.)'' McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. pp. 444–451</ref> and more influential to the teen, affecting both the decisions and choices being made.<ref name="Swanson">{{Citation |last1= Swanson |first1= D.P. |last2=Edwards |first2=M.C. |last3=Spencer |first3=M.B. |title=Adolescence: Development during a global era |publisher=Elsevier Academic Press |place= Boston |year=2010}}</ref> High quality friendships may enhance children's development regardless of the characteristics of those friends. As children begin to bond with various people and create friendships, it later helps them when they are adolescent and sets up the framework for adolescence and peer groups.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Berndt|first=Thomas J.|title=Friendship Quality and Social Development | journal = Current Directions in Psychological Science|date=February 2002|volume=11|issue=1|pages=7–10|doi=10.1111/1467-8721.00157|s2cid=14785379}}</ref>
[[Peer group]]s are especially important during adolescence, a period of development characterized by a dramatic increase in time spent with peers<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Larson R. |author2=Richards M. |year = 1991 | title = Daily companionship in late childhood and early adolescence: Changing developmental contexts | journal = Child Development | volume = 62 | issue = 2| pages = 284–300 | doi = 10.2307/1131003 | pmid = 2055123|jstor=1131003 }}</ref> and a decrease in adult supervision.<ref>Brown, B. (1990). Peer groups. In S. Feldman & G. Elliot (Eds.), ''At the threshold: The developing adolescent'', pp.&nbsp;171–196. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</ref> Adolescents also associate with friends of the opposite sex much more than in childhood<ref>Brown, B. (2004). Adolescents' relationships with peers. In R. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), ''Handbook of adolescent psychology''. New York: Wiley.</ref> and tend to identify with larger groups of peers based on shared characteristics.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Eder D | year = 1985 | title = The cycle of popularity: Interpersonal relations among female adolescence | journal = Sociology of Education | volume = 58 | issue = 3| pages = 154–165 | doi = 10.2307/2112416 | jstor = 2112416 }}</ref> It is also common for adolescents to use friends as coping devices in different situations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shin |first1=Huiyoung |last2=Ryan |first2=Allison M. |title=How do Young Adolescents Cope With Social Problems? An Examination of Social Goals, Coping With Friends, and Social Adjustment |journal=The Journal of Early Adolescence |date=December 2012 |volume=32 |issue=6 |pages=851–875 |doi=10.1177/0272431611429944 |s2cid=144031307 }}</ref> A three-factor structure of dealing with friends including avoidance, mastery, and nonchalance has shown that adolescents use friends as coping devices with [[social stress]]es.

Communication within peer groups allows adolescents to explore their feelings and identity as well as develop and evaluate their social skills. Peer groups offer members the opportunity to develop social skills such as empathy, sharing, and leadership. Adolescents choose peer groups based on characteristics similarly found in themselves.<ref name="Rawlins"/> By utilizing these relationships, adolescents become more accepting of who they are becoming. Group norms and values are incorporated into an adolescent's own self-concept.<ref name="Swanson"/> Through developing new communication skills and reflecting upon those of their peers, as well as self-opinions and values, an adolescent can share and express emotions and other concerns without fear of rejection or judgment. Peer groups can have positive influences on an individual, such as on academic motivation and performance. However, while peers may facilitate social development for one another they may also hinder it. Peers can have negative influences, such as encouraging experimentation with drugs, drinking, vandalism, and stealing through peer pressure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.minddisorders.com/Ob-Ps/Peer-groups.html |title=Peer groups – children, therapy, adults, drug, people, skills, effect, women |publisher=Minddisorders.com |access-date=September 15, 2012}}</ref> Susceptibility to peer pressure increases during early adolescence, peaks around age 14, and declines thereafter.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=18020830|year=2007|last1=Steinberg|first1=L|last2=Monahan|first2=KC|title=Age Differences in Resistance to Peer Influence|volume=43|issue=6|pages=1531–43|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1531|pmc=2779518|journal=Developmental Psychology}}</ref> Further evidence of peers hindering social development has been found in Spanish teenagers, where emotional (rather than solution-based) reactions to problems and emotional instability have been linked with physical aggression against peers.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Carlo G. |author2=Mestre M. V. |author3=McGinley M. M. |author4=Samper P. |author5=Tur A. |author6=Sandman D. | year = 2012 | title = The interplay of emotional instability, empathy, and coping on prosocial and aggressive behaviors | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 53 | issue = 5| pages = 675–680 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2012.05.022| hdl=10550/77037 |s2cid=2672618 | hdl-access=free }}</ref> Both [[Assault|physical]] and [[relational aggression]] are linked to a vast number of enduring psychological difficulties, especially depression, as is [[social rejection]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=French D. |author2=Conrad J. | year = 2001 | title = School dropout as predicted by peer rejection and antisocial behavior | journal = Journal of Research on Adolescence | volume = 11 | issue = 3| pages = 225–244 | doi = 10.1111/1532-7795.00011 }}</ref> Because of this, bullied adolescents often develop problems that lead to further victimization.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hodges E, Perry D | year = 1999 | title = Personal and interpersonal antecedents and consequences of victimization by peers | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 76 | issue = 4| pages = 677–685 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.76.4.677 | pmid = 10234851 }}</ref> Bullied adolescents are more likely to both continue to be bullied and to bully others in the future.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Jose P. E. |author2=Kljakovic M. |author3=Scheib E. |author4=Notter O. | year = 2012 | title = The Joint Development of Traditional Bullying and Victimization With Cyber Bullying and Victimization in Adolescence | journal = Journal of Research on Adolescence | volume = 22 | issue = 2| pages = 301–309 | doi = 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2011.00764.x }}</ref> However, this relationship is less stable in cases of [[cyberbullying]], a relatively new issue among adolescents.

Adolescents tend to associate with "cliques" on a small scale and "crowds" on a larger scale. During early adolescence, adolescents often associate in [[Adolescent cliques|cliques]], exclusive, single-sex groups of peers with whom they are particularly close. Despite the common{{According to whom|date=April 2016}} notion that cliques are an inherently negative influence, they may help adolescents become socially acclimated and form a stronger sense of identity. Within a clique of highly athletic male-peers, for example, the clique may create a stronger sense of fidelity and competition. Cliques also have become somewhat a "collective parent", i.e. telling the adolescents what to do and not to do.<ref>Grier, Peter. "The Heart of a High School: Peers As Collective Parent." ''The Christian Science Monitor''. April 24, 2000: n.p. ''SIRS Researcher''. Web. October 25, 2010.</ref> Towards late adolescence, cliques often merge into mixed-sex groups as teenagers begin romantically engaging with one another.<ref name="Connolly J 2004">{{cite journal |author1=Connolly J. |author2=Craig W. |author3=Goldberg A. |author4=Pepler D. | year = 2004 | title = Mixed-gender groups, dating, and romantic relationships in early adolescence | journal = Journal of Research on Adolescence | volume = 14 | issue = 2| pages = 185–207 | doi = 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2004.01402003.x |citeseerx=10.1.1.578.7047 }}</ref> These small friend groups then break down further as socialization becomes more couple-oriented. On a larger scale, adolescents often associate with ''crowds'', groups of individuals who share a common interest or activity. Often, crowd identities may be the basis for stereotyping young people, such as [[Jock (athlete)|jocks]] or [[nerd]]s. In large, multi-ethnic high schools, there are often ethnically determined crowds.<ref>{{cite journal | author1 = Brown, B. |last2=Subrahmanyam| first2=Kaveri | last3=Greenfield| first3=Patricia|date= Spring 2008|title= Online Communication and Adolescent Relationships|journal= The Future of Children| volume=18| issue=1 |pages=119–146| doi=10.1353/foc.0.0006| pmid= 21338008 |s2cid=10958863}}</ref> Adolescents use online technology to experiment with emerging identities and to broaden their peer groups, such as increasing the amount of friends acquired on Facebook and other social media sites.<ref name="Swanson"/> Some adolescents use these newer channels to enhance relationships with peers however there can be negative uses as well such as cyberbullying, as mentioned previously, and negative impacts on the family.<ref name="Subrahmanyam">{{Cite journal|last1=Subrahmanyam| first1=Kaveri | last2=Greenfield| first2=Patricia|date= Spring 2008|title= Online Communication and Adolescent Relationships|journal= The Future of Children| volume=18| issue=1 |pages=119–146| doi=10.1353/foc.0.0006| pmid=21338008 | s2cid=10958863 }}</ref>

====Romance and sexual activity====
{{Main|Adolescent sexuality}}
[[File:Teen kiss.jpg|thumb|Adolescent couple kissing]]
[[Intimate relationship|Romantic relationships]] tend to increase in prevalence throughout adolescence. By age 15, 53% of adolescents have had a romantic relationship that lasted at least one month over the course of the previous 18 months.<ref name="Carver K. 2003">Carver K., Joyner K., Udry J.R. (2003). National estimates of adolescent romantic relationships. In ''Adolescent Romantic Relationships and Sexual Behavior: Theory, Research, and Practical Implications'', 291–329.</ref> In a 2008 study conducted by [[YouGov]] for [[Channel 4]], 20% of 14−17-year-olds surveyed revealed that they had their first sexual experience at 13 or under in the United Kingdom.<ref name="sex stats">{{cite web|url=http://sexperienceuk.channel4.com/teen-sex-survey|title=Teen Sex Survey|access-date=September 11, 2008|publisher=Channel 4|year=2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080912225248/http://sexperienceuk.channel4.com/teen-sex-survey|archive-date=September 12, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> A 2002 American study found that those aged 15–44 reported that the average age of first sexual intercourse was 17.0 for males and 17.3 for females.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newstrategist.com/productdetails/Sex.SamplePgs.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061120093911/http://www.newstrategist.com/productdetails/Sex.SamplePgs.pdf|archive-date=November 20, 2006 |title=Seventeen Is the Average Age at First Sexual Intercourse, ''American Sexual Behavior'', p.4-5 |url-status=usurped|access-date=September 15, 2012}}</ref> The typical duration of relationships increases throughout the teenage years as well. This constant increase in the likelihood of a long-term relationship can be explained by [[sexual maturity|sexual maturation]] and the development of cognitive skills necessary to maintain a romantic bond (e.g. caregiving, appropriate attachment), although these skills are not strongly developed until late adolescence.<ref>Allen, J., & Land, D. (1999). Attachment in adolescence. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.), ''Handbook of attachment theory and research.'' New York: Guilford Press.</ref> Long-term relationships allow adolescents to gain the skills necessary for high-quality relationships later in life<ref>Madsen S., Collins W. A. (2005). Differential predictions of young adult romantic
relationships from transitory vs. longer romantic experiences during adolescence. Presented at ''Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research on Child Development'', Atlanta, GA.</ref> and develop feelings of self-worth. Overall, positive romantic relationships among adolescents can result in long-term benefits. High-quality romantic relationships are associated with higher commitment in early adulthood<ref>Seiffge-Krenke I., Lang J. (2002). Forming and maintaining romantic relations
from early adolescence to young adulthood: evidence of a developmental sequence. Presented at ''Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research on Adolescence'', 19th, New Orleans, LA.</ref> and are positively associated with self-esteem, self-confidence, and social competence.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Pearce M. J. |author2=Boergers J. |author3=Prinstein M.J. |year = 2002 | title = Adolescent obesity, overt and relational peer victimization, and romantic relationships | journal = Obesity Research | volume = 10 | issue = 5| pages = 386–93 | doi = 10.1038/oby.2002.53 | pmid = 12006638 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Zimmer-Gembeck M.J. |author2=Siebenbruner J. |author3=Collins W.A. | year = 2004 | title = A prospective study of intraindividual and peer influences on adolescents' heterosexual romantic and sexual behavior | journal = Archives of Sexual Behavior | volume = 33 | issue = 4| pages = 381–394 | doi = 10.1023/B:ASEB.0000028891.16654.2c | pmid = 15162084 |s2cid=1054833 }}</ref> For example, an adolescent with positive self-confidence is likely to consider themselves a more successful partner, whereas negative experiences may lead to low confidence as a romantic partner.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Furman |first1=Wyndol |last2=Shaffer |first2=Laura |chapter=The role of romantic relationships in adolescent development |pages=3–22 |chapter-url=https://liberalarts.du.edu/sites/default/files/2021-04/furman-shaffer-2003.pdf |editor1-last=Florsheim |editor1-first=Paul |title=Adolescent Romantic Relations and Sexual Behavior: Theory, Research, and Practical Implications |date=2003 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-1-135-64863-3 }}</ref> Adolescents often date within their demographic in regards to race, ethnicity, popularity, and physical attractiveness.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Simon | first1 = V. A. | last2 = Aikins | first2 = J. W. | last3 = Prinstein | first3 = M. J. | year = 2008 | title = Romantic partner selection and socialization during early adolescence | journal = Child Development | volume =  79| issue = 6| pages = 1676–92 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01218.x | pmid = 19037942 | pmc = 3420070 }}</ref> However, there are traits in which certain individuals, particularly adolescent girls, seek diversity. While most adolescents date people approximately their own age, boys typically date partners the same age or younger; girls typically date partners the same age or older.<ref name="Carver K. 2003"/>

Some researchers are now focusing on learning about how adolescents view their own relationships and sexuality; they want to move away from a research point of view that focuses on the problems associated with adolescent sexuality.{{why|This sounds pov, in itself without an explanation|date=April 2014}} College Professor Lucia O'Sullivan and her colleagues found that there were no significant gender differences in the relationship events adolescent boys and girls from grades 7–12 reported.<ref name="O'Sullivan">{{cite journal |author = O'Sullivan L. F. |author2=Cheng M. |author3=Brooks-Gunn J. |author4=Mantsun K. Harris | year = 2007 | title = I wanna hold your hand: The progression of social, romantic and sexual events in adolescent relationships | journal = Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health | volume = 39 | issue = 2| pages = 100–107 | doi = 10.1363/3910007 | pmid = 17565623 |url=https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/downloads/gb19ff89v }}</ref> Most teens said they had kissed their partners, held hands with them, thought of themselves as being a couple and told people they were in a relationship. This means that private thoughts about the relationship as well as public recognition of the relationship were both important to the adolescents in the sample. Sexual events (such as sexual touching, sexual intercourse) were less common than romantic events (holding hands) and social events (being with one's partner in a group setting). The researchers state that these results are important because the results focus on the more positive aspects of adolescents and their social and romantic interactions rather than focusing on sexual behavior and its consequences.<ref name="O'Sullivan" />

Adolescence marks a time of sexual maturation, which manifests in social interactions as well. While adolescents may engage in [[casual sex|casual sexual encounters]] (often referred to as hookups), most sexual experience during this period of development takes place within romantic relationships.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Manning W. |author2=Longmore M. |author3=Giordano P. | year = 2000 | title = The relationship context of contraceptive use at first intercourse | url = http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3210400.html| journal = Family Planning Perspectives | volume = 32 | issue = 3| pages = 104–110 | doi = 10.2307/2648158 | pmid = 10894255 |jstor=2648158 }}</ref> Adolescents can use technologies and social media to seek out romantic relationships as they feel it is a safe place to try out dating and identity exploration. From these social media encounters, a further relationship may begin.<ref name="Swanson"/> Kissing, hand holding, and hugging signify satisfaction and commitment. Among young adolescents, "heavy" sexual activity, marked by genital stimulation, is often associated with violence, depression, and poor relationship quality.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Welsh D. P. |author2=Haugen P. T. |author3=Widman L. |author4=Darling N. |author5=Grello C. M. | year = 2005 | title = Kissing is good: a developmental investigation of sexuality in adolescent romantic couples | journal = Sexuality Research and Social Policy | volume = 2 | issue = 4| pages = 32–41 | doi = 10.1525/srsp.2005.2.4.32 |s2cid=144037962 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Trish |last2=Connolly |first2=Jennifer |last3=Cribbie |first3=Robert |title=Light and Heavy Heterosexual Activities of Young Canadian Adolescents: Normative Patterns and Differential Predictors |journal=Journal of Research on Adolescence |date=March 2008 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=145–172 |doi=10.1111/j.1532-7795.2008.00554.x |hdl=10315/34629 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This effect does not hold true for sexual activity in late adolescence that takes place within a romantic relationship.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Grello C. M. |author2=Welsh D. P. |author3=Harper MS |author4=Dickson J. | year = 2003 | title = Dating and sexual relationship trajectories and adolescent functioning | journal = Adolescent & Family Health | volume = 3 | pages = 103–12 }}</ref> Some research suggest that there are genetic causes of early sexual activity that are also risk factors for [[juvenile delinquency|delinquency]], suggesting that there is a group who are at risk for both early sexual activity and emotional distress. For older adolescents, though, sexual activity in the context of romantic relationships was actually correlated with lower levels of deviant behavior after controlling for genetic risks, as opposed to sex outside of a relationship (hook-ups).<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Harden K. |author2=Mendle J. | year = 2011 | title = Adolescent sexual activity and the development of delinquent behavior: The role of relationship context | journal = Journal of Youth and Adolescence | volume = 40 | issue = 7| pages = 825–838 | doi = 10.1007/s10964-010-9601-y |pmid=21069562 |s2cid=11855204 }}</ref>

[[Dating abuse|Dating violence]] can occur within adolescent relationships. When surveyed, 12–25% of adolescents reported having experienced physical violence in the context of a relationship while a quarter to a third of adolescents reported having experiencing psychological aggression. This reported aggression includes hitting, throwing things, or slaps, although most of this physical aggression does not result in a medical visit. Physical aggression in relationships tends to decline from high school through college and young adulthood. In heterosexual couples, there is no significant difference between the rates of male and female aggressors, unlike in adult relationships.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Halpern C. |author2=Oslak S. |author3=Young M. |author4=Martin S. |author5=Kupper L. | year = 2001 | title = Partner violence among adolescents in opposite-sex romantic: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health | journal = American Journal of Public Health | volume = 91 | issue = 10| pages = 1679–1685 | doi = 10.2105/AJPH.91.10.1679 | pmid = 11574335 | pmc = 1446854 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Halpern C. |author2=Young M. |author3=Waller M. |author4=Martin S. |author5=Kupper L. | year = 2004 | title = Prevalence of partner violence in same-sex romantic and sexual relationships in a national sample of adolescents | journal = Journal of Adolescent Health | volume = 35 | issue = 2| pages = 124–131 | pmid = 15261641 | doi = 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2003.09.003 }}</ref><ref name="Collins2009">{{cite journal |author1=Collins W. A. |author2=Welsh D. P. |author3=Furman W. | year = 2009 | title = Adolescent romantic relationships | journal = Annual Review of Psychology | volume = 60 | issue = 1| pages = 631–652 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163459 | pmid = 19035830 |s2cid=207671931 }}</ref>

Female adolescents from minority populations are at increased risk for [[intimate partner violence]] (IPV). Recent research findings suggest that a substantial portion of young urban females are at high risk for being victims of multiple forms of IPV. Practitioners diagnosing depression among urban minority teens should assess for both physical and non-physical forms of IPV, and early detection can help to identify youths in need of intervention and care.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Teitelman | first1 = AM | last2 = Ratcliffe | first2 = SJ | last3 = McDonald | first3 = CC | last4 = Brawner | first4 = BM | last5 = Sullivan | first5 = C | year = 2011 | title = Relationships between physical and non-physical forms of intimate partner violence and depression among urban minority adolescent females | journal = Child and Adolescent Mental Health | volume = 16 | issue = 2| pages = 92–100 | doi = 10.1111/j.1475-3588.2010.00572.x | pmid = 21617762 | pmc = 3100197 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Volpe | first1 = EM | last2 = Morales-Aleman | first2 = MM | last3 = Teitelman | first3 = AM | year = 2014 | title = Urban adolescent girls' perspectives on romantic relationships: Initiation, involvement, negotiation and conflict | journal = Issues in Mental Health Nursing | volume = 35 | issue = 10| pages = 776–790 | doi = 10.3109/01612840.2014.910582 | pmid = 25259641 | pmc = 4670570 }}</ref> Similarly to adult victims, adolescent victims do not readily disclose abuse, and may seek out medical care for problems not directly related to incidences of IPV. Therefore, screening should be a routine part of medical treatment for adolescents regardless of chief complaint. Many adults discount instances of IPV in adolescents or believe they do not occur because relationships at young ages are viewed as "puppy love," however, it is crucial that adults take IPV in adolescents seriously even though often policy falls behind.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Kristie A. |last2=Sorenson |first2=Susan B. |author2-link=Susan Sorenson|last3=Joshi |first3=Manisha |title=Police-Documented Incidents of Intimate Partner Violence Among Young Women |journal=Journal of Women's Health |date=June 2010 |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=1079–1087 |doi=10.1089/jwh.2009.1612 |pmid=20482254 }}</ref>

In contemporary society, adolescents also face some risks as their sexuality begins to transform. While some of these, such as emotional distress (fear of abuse or exploitation) and [[sexually transmitted disease|sexually transmitted infections]]/diseases (STIs/STDs), including [[HIV/AIDS]], are not necessarily inherent to adolescence, others such as [[teenage pregnancy]] (through non-use or failure of contraceptives) are seen as social problems in most western societies. One in four sexually active teenagers will contract an STI.<ref name="Mulrine, A 2010">{{cite magazine |last1=Mulrine |first1=A |date=27 May 2002 |title=Risky business: teens are having more sex—and getting diseases. But is telling them to wait the answer? |magazine=US News and World Report |pages=42–49 }}</ref> Adolescents in the United States often chose "anything but intercourse" for sexual activity because they mistakenly believe it reduces the risk of STIs. Across the country, clinicians report rising diagnoses of [[Herpes simplex|herpes]] and [[human papillomavirus]] (HPV), which can cause genital warts, and is now thought to affect 15 percent of the teen population. Girls 15 to 19 have higher rates of gonorrhea than any other age group. One-quarter of all new HIV cases occur in those under the age of 21.<ref name="Mulrine, A 2010"/> Multrine also states in her article that according to a March survey by the [[Kaiser Family Foundation]], eighty-one percent of parents want schools to discuss the use of condoms and contraception with their children. They also believe students should be able to be tested for STIs. Furthermore, teachers want to address such topics with their students. But, although 9 in 10 [[sex education]] instructors across the country believe that students should be taught about contraceptives in school, over one quarter report receiving explicit instructions from school boards and administrators not to do so. According to anthropologist [[Margaret Mead]], the turmoil found in adolescence in Western society has a cultural rather than a physical cause; they reported that societies where young women engaged in free sexual activity had no such adolescent turmoil.