Editing Wolf (section)

== Relationships with humans ==
=== In culture ===
==== In folklore, religion and mythology ====
<!-- Please do not add any more examples to this section. This subject already has its own article -->
{{Main|Wolves in folklore, religion and mythology}}
{{See also|Wolves in heraldry}}
[[File:Lupa Capitolina, Rome.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Photograph of the sculpture ''Capitoline Wolf'' showing of the mythical she-wolf feeding the twins Romulus and Remus|The ''[[Capitoline Wolf]]'', sculpture of the mythical [[She-wolf (Roman mythology)|she-wolf]] feeding the twins [[Romulus and Remus]], from the legend of the [[founding of Rome]], Italy, 13th century AD. (The twins are a 15th-century addition.)]]

The wolf is a common motif in the mythologies and cosmologies of peoples throughout its historical range. The [[Ancient Greeks]] associated wolves with [[Apollo]], the god of light and order.{{sfn|Mech|Boitani|2003|p=292}} The [[Ancient Romans]] connected the wolf with their god of war and agriculture [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]],{{sfn|Lopez|1978|p=210}} and believed their city's founders, [[Romulus and Remus]], were suckled by a [[She-wolf (Roman mythology)|she-wolf]].{{sfn|Marvin|2012|p=128}} [[Norse mythology]] includes the feared giant wolf [[Fenrir]],<ref name=Symbolism/> and [[Geri and Freki]], [[Odin]]'s faithful pets.{{sfn|Marvin|2012|p=78}}

In [[Chinese astronomy]], the wolf represents [[Sirius]] and guards the heavenly gate. In China, the wolf was traditionally associated with greed and cruelty and wolf epithets were used to describe negative behaviours such as cruelty ("wolf's heart"), mistrust ("wolf's look") and lechery ("wolf-sex"). In both [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]], the wolf is ridden by gods of protection. In [[Vedic]] Hinduism, the wolf is a symbol of the night and the daytime [[quail]] must escape from its jaws. In [[Tantric Buddhism]], wolves are depicted as inhabitants of graveyards and destroyers of corpses.<ref name=Symbolism/>

In the [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]] creation myth, the wolf was the first animal brought to Earth. When humans killed it, they were punished with death, destruction and the loss of immortality.{{sfn|Lopez|1978|p=133}} For the Pawnee, Sirius is the "wolf star" and its disappearance and reappearance signified the wolf moving to and from the spirit world. Both Pawnee and [[Blackfoot]] call the [[Milky Way]] the "wolf trail".{{sfn|Busch|2007|p=110}} The wolf is also an important [[Crest (heraldry)|crest]] symbol for clans of the Pacific Northwest like the [[Kwakwakaʼwakw]].<ref name=Symbolism/>

The concept of people turning into wolves, and the inverse, has been present in many cultures. One [[Greek myth]] tells of [[Lycaon (king of Arcadia)|Lycaon]] being transformed into a wolf by [[Zeus]] as punishment for his evil deeds.{{sfn|Marvin|2012|p=47}} The legend of the [[werewolf]] has been widespread in [[European folklore]] and involves people willingly turning into wolves to attack and kill others.{{sfn|Marvin|2012|p=50}} The [[Navajo]] have traditionally believed that [[skin-walker|witches]] would turn into wolves by donning wolf skins and would kill people and raid graveyards.{{sfn|Lopez|1978|p=123}} The [[Dena'ina]] believed wolves were once men and viewed them as brothers.{{sfn|Mech|Boitani|2003|p=292}}

==== In fable and literature ====

{{See also|List of fictional wolves}}
[[Aesop]] featured wolves in several of his [[Aesop's Fables|fables]], playing on the concerns of Ancient Greece's settled, sheep-herding world. His most famous is the fable of "[[The Boy Who Cried Wolf]]", which is directed at those who knowingly raise false alarms, and from which the idiomatic phrase "to [[wikt:cry wolf|cry wolf]]" is derived. Some of his other fables concentrate on maintaining the trust between shepherds and guard dogs in their vigilance against wolves, as well as anxieties over the close relationship between wolves and dogs. Although Aesop used wolves to warn, criticize and moralize about human behaviour, his portrayals added to the wolf's image as a deceitful and dangerous animal. The [[Bible]] uses an image of a wolf lying with a lamb in a utopian vision of the future. In the [[New Testament]], [[Jesus]] is said to have used wolves as illustrations of the dangers his followers, whom he represents as sheep, would face should they follow him.{{sfn|Marvin|2012|pp=38–45}}
[[File:Dore ridinghood.jpg|thumb|upright|right|alt=An illustration of Red Riding Hood meeting the wolf|''[[Little Red Riding Hood]]'' (1883), [[Gustave Doré]]]] 
Isengrim the wolf, a character first appearing in the 12th-century Latin poem ''[[Ysengrimus]]'', is a major character in the [[Reynard]] Cycle, where he stands for the low nobility, whilst his adversary, Reynard the fox, represents the peasant hero. Isengrim is forever the victim of Reynard's wit and cruelty, often dying at the end of each story.{{sfn|Lopez|1978|p=259}} The tale of "[[Little Red Riding Hood]]", first written in 1697 by [[Charles Perrault]], is considered to have further contributed to the wolf's negative reputation in the Western world. The [[Big Bad Wolf]] is portrayed as a villain capable of imitating human speech and disguising itself with human clothing. The character has been interpreted as an allegorical [[sexual predator]].{{sfn|Marvin|2012|pp=64–70}} Villainous wolf characters also appear in ''[[The Three Little Pigs]]'' and "[[The Wolf and the Seven Young Goats]]".{{sfn|Lopez|1978|p=263}} The hunting of wolves, and their attacks on humans and livestock, feature prominently in [[Russian literature]], and are included in the works of [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Anton Chekhov]], [[Nikolay Nekrasov]], [[Ivan Bunin]], [[Leonid Pavlovich Sabaneyev]], and others. Tolstoy's ''[[War and Peace]]'' and Chekhov's ''Peasants'' both feature scenes in which wolves are hunted with hounds and [[Borzoi]]s.{{sfn|Graves|2007|pp=21, 123}} The musical ''[[Peter and the Wolf]]'' involves a wolf being captured for eating a duck, but is spared and sent to a zoo.{{sfn|Marvin|2012|p=162}}

Wolves are among the central characters of [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s ''[[The Jungle Book]]''. His portrayal of wolves has been praised posthumously by wolf biologists for his depiction of them: rather than being villainous or gluttonous, as was common in wolf portrayals at the time of the book's publication, they are shown as living in amiable family groups and drawing on the experience of infirm but experienced elder pack members.<ref name=Kipling/> [[Farley Mowat]]'s largely fictional 1963 memoir ''[[Never Cry Wolf]]'' is widely considered to be the most popular book on wolves, having been adapted into a [[Never Cry Wolf (film)|Hollywood film]] and taught in several schools decades after its publication. Although credited with having changed popular perceptions on wolves by portraying them as loving, cooperative and noble, it has been criticized for its idealization of wolves and its factual inaccuracies.{{sfn|Mech|Boitani|2003|p=294}}<ref name=Jones/><ref name="Nevercrywolf"/>

=== Conflicts ===

Human presence appears to stress wolves, as seen by increased [[cortisol]] levels in instances such as snowmobiling near their territory.<ref name=Creel/>

==== Predation on livestock ====

[[File:The Allendale Wolf.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Black and white photograph of a dead wolf with "The Allendale Wolf" written on the bottom|A 1905 postcard of the [[Hexham wolf]], an escaped wolf shot for killing livestock in England]]

Livestock depredation has been one of the primary reasons for hunting wolves and can pose a severe problem for wolf conservation. As well as causing economic losses, the threat of wolf predation causes great stress on livestock producers, and no foolproof solution of preventing such attacks short of exterminating wolves has been found.{{sfn|Mech|Boitani|2003|p=305}} Some nations help offset economic losses to wolves through compensation programs or state insurance.{{sfn|Mech|Boitani|2003|p=309}} Domesticated animals are easy prey for wolves, as they have been bred under constant human protection, and are thus unable to defend themselves very well.{{sfn|Mech|1981|p=173}} Wolves typically resort to attacking livestock when wild prey is depleted.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Levy|first=Max G.|date=December 11, 2020|title=These Non-Lethal Methods Encouraged by Science Can Keep Wolves From Killing Livestock|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/these-non-lethal-methods-encouraged-science-can-keep-wolves-killing-livestock-180976505/|access-date=2020-12-16|website=Smithsonian Magazine|language=en}}</ref> In Eurasia, a large part of the diet of some wolf populations consists of livestock, while such incidents are rare in North America, where healthy populations of wild prey have been largely restored.{{sfn|Mech|Boitani|2003|p=305}}

The majority of losses occur during the summer grazing period, untended livestock in remote pastures being the most vulnerable to wolf predation.{{sfn|Mech|Boitani|2003|p=307}} The most frequently targeted livestock species are sheep (Europe), [[Reindeer herding|domestic reindeer]] (northern Scandinavia), [[goat]]s (India), [[horse]]s (Mongolia), [[cattle]] and [[Domestic turkey|turkeys]] (North America).{{sfn|Mech|Boitani|2003|p=305}} The number of animals killed in single attacks varies according to species: most attacks on cattle and horses result in one death, while turkeys, sheep and domestic reindeer may be killed in surplus.{{sfn|Mech|Boitani|2003|p=306}} Wolves mainly attack livestock when the animals are grazing, though they occasionally break into fenced enclosures.{{sfn|Graves|2007|p=45}}

==== Competition with dogs ====

A review of the studies on the competitive effects of dogs on [[Sympatry|sympatric]] carnivores did not mention any research on competition between dogs and wolves.<ref name=Vanak2014/><ref name=Lescureaux2014 /> Competition would favour the wolf, which is known to kill dogs; however, wolves usually live in pairs or in small packs in areas with high human persecution, giving them a disadvantage when facing large groups of dogs.<ref name=Lescureaux2014 /><ref name=Boitani1983/>

Wolves kill dogs on occasion, and some wolf populations rely on dogs as an important food source. In Croatia, wolves kill more dogs than sheep, and wolves in Russia appear to limit stray dog populations. Wolves may display unusually bold behaviour when attacking dogs accompanied by people, sometimes ignoring nearby humans. Wolf attacks on dogs may occur both in house yards and in forests. Wolf attacks on hunting dogs are considered a major problem in Scandinavia and Wisconsin.{{sfn|Mech|Boitani|2003|p=305}}<ref name="Jess" /> Although the number of dogs killed each year by wolves is relatively low, it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to prey on them. In many cultures, dogs are seen as family members, or at least working team members, and losing one can lead to strong emotional responses such as demanding more liberal hunting regulations.<ref name=Lescureaux2014 />

Dogs that are employed to guard sheep help to mitigate human–wolf conflicts, and are often proposed as one of the non-lethal tools in the conservation of wolves.<ref name=Lescureaux2014 /><ref name=Shivik2006/> Shepherd dogs are not particularly aggressive, but they can disrupt potential wolf predation by displaying what is to the wolf ambiguous behaviours, such as barking, social greeting, invitation to play or aggression. The historical use of shepherd dogs across Eurasia has been effective against wolf predation,<ref name=Lescureaux2014 /><ref name=Coppinger1995 /> especially when confining sheep in the presence of several livestock guardian dogs.<ref name=Lescureaux2014 /><ref name=Espuno2004/> Shepherd dogs are sometimes killed by wolves.<ref name=Lescureaux2014 />

==== Attacks on humans ====

{{Main|Wolf attack|List of wolf attacks}}
[[File:Petits Paysans surpris par un loup.jpg|thumb|alt=Painting of a wolf snarling at three children|''Country children surprised by a wolf'' (1833) by François Grenier de Saint-Martin]]

The fear of wolves has been pervasive in many societies, though humans are not part of the wolf's natural prey.<ref name="Linnell" /> How wolves react to humans depends largely on their prior experience with people: wolves lacking any negative experience of humans, or which are food-conditioned, may show little fear of people.{{sfn|Mech|Boitani|2003|pp=300–304}} Although wolves may react aggressively when provoked, such attacks are mostly limited to quick bites on extremities, and the attacks are not pressed.<ref name="Linnell"/>

Predatory attacks may be preceded by a long period of [[habituation]], in which wolves gradually lose their fear of humans. The victims are repeatedly bitten on the head and face, and are then dragged off and consumed unless the wolves are driven off. Such attacks typically occur only locally and do not stop until the wolves involved are eliminated. Predatory attacks can occur at any time of the year, with a peak in the June–August period, when the chances of people entering forested areas (for livestock [[grazing]] or berry and mushroom picking) increase.<ref name="Linnell" /> Cases of non-rabid wolf attacks in winter have been recorded in [[Belarus]], [[Kirov Oblast|Kirov]] and [[Irkutsk Oblast|Irkutsk]] oblasts, [[Karelia]] and [[Ukraine]]. Also, wolves with pups experience greater food stresses during this period.{{sfn|Heptner|Naumov|1998|pp=164–270}} The majority of victims of predatory wolf attacks are children under the age of 18 and, in the rare cases where adults are killed, the victims are almost always women.<ref name="Linnell" /> Indian wolves have a history of preying on children, a phenomenon called "child-lifting". They may be taken primarily in the spring and summer periods during the evening hours, and often within human settlements.<ref name="Rajpurohit1999"/>

Cases of rabid wolves are low when compared to other species, as wolves do not serve as primary reservoirs of the disease, but can be infected by animals such as dogs, jackals and foxes. Incidents of rabies in wolves are very rare in North America, though numerous in the eastern [[Mediterranean]], the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia]]. Wolves apparently develop the "furious" phase of rabies to a very high degree. This, coupled with their size and strength, makes rabid wolves perhaps the most dangerous of rabid animals.<ref name="Linnell" /> Bites from rabid wolves are 15 times more dangerous than those of rabid dogs.{{sfn|Heptner|Naumov|1998|p=267}} Rabid wolves usually act alone, travelling large distances and often biting large numbers of people and domestic animals. Most rabid wolf attacks occur in the spring and autumn periods. Unlike with predatory attacks, the victims of rabid wolves are not eaten, and the attacks generally occur only on a single day. The victims are chosen at random, though most cases involve adult men. During the fifty years up to 2002, there were eight fatal attacks in Europe and Russia, and more than two hundred in southern Asia.<ref name="Linnell" />

====Human hunting of wolves ====

{{Main|Wolf hunting|Wolf hunting with dogs}}
{{See also|Wolf hunting#Quarry|l1=Human uses of hunted wolves}}
[[File:Provedenie meropriyatii po otstrelu vrednyh givotnyh na territorii Kamyshinskogo raiona Volgogradskoi oblasti.jpg|thumb|alt=Two men with guns behind nine carcasses of hunted wolves|Carcasses of hunted wolves in [[Volgograd Oblast]], Russia]]

[[Theodore Roosevelt]] said wolves are difficult to hunt because of their elusiveness, sharp senses, high endurance, and ability to quickly incapacitate and kill hunting dogs.<ref name="Roosevelt"/> Historic methods included killing of spring-born litters in their dens, [[coursing]] with dogs (usually combinations of [[sighthound]]s, [[Bloodhound]]s and [[Fox Terrier]]s), poisoning with [[strychnine]], and [[trapping]].{{sfn|Lopez|1978|p=108}}{{sfn|Graves|2007|pp=121–140}}

A popular method of wolf hunting in Russia involves trapping a pack within a small area by encircling it with [[fladry]] poles carrying a human scent. This method relies heavily on the wolf's fear of human scents, though it can lose its effectiveness when wolves become accustomed to the odor. Some hunters can lure wolves by imitating their calls. In [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Mongolia]], wolves are traditionally [[falconry|hunted using]] [[Golden eagles in human culture#Falconry|eagles]] and large falcons, though this practice is declining, as experienced falconers are becoming few in number. Shooting wolves from aircraft is highly effective, due to increased visibility and direct lines of fire.{{sfn|Graves|2007|pp=121–140}} Several types of dog, including the [[Borzoi]] and [[Taigan|Kyrgyz Tajgan]], have been specifically bred for wolf hunting.<ref name=Lescureaux2014/>

=== Wolves as pets and working animals ===

{{Main|Wolves as pets and working animals}}

Wolves and [[wolf-dog hybrid]]s are sometimes kept as [[exotic pet]]s, wolves do not show the same tractability as dogs in living alongside humans, being generally less responsive to human commands and more likely to act aggressively. Humans are more likely to be fatally mauled by a pet wolf or wolf-dog hybrid than by a dog.<ref name="Tucker1998"/>