Editing Romansh language (section)

== Language contact ==
Romansh speakers have been in close contact with speakers of German dialects such as Alemannic and Bavarian for centuries, as well as speakers of various Italian dialects and Standard German more recently. These languages have influenced Romansh, most strongly the vocabulary, whereas the German and Italian influences on morphology and syntax are much more limited. This means that despite German influence, Romansh has remained a Romance language in its core structure.{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=137}} Romansh linguist Ricarda Liver also notes that an influence of Swiss German on intonation is obvious, in particular in the Sursilvan dialect, even though this has so far not been linguistically studied.{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=137}} The influence of German is generally strongest in the Rhenish varieties Sursilvan, Sutsilvan, and Sursilvan, where French loanwords (frequently not borrowed directly but transmitted through German) are also more numerous. In the dialects of the Engadine, by contrast, the influence of Italian is stronger.<ref>Grünert, Matthias (2013). Italienischer Einfluss in Lexemverbänden und Wortformenparadigmen des Bündnerromanischen. In G. Darms, C. Riatsch & C. Solèr (eds.), Akten des V. Rätoromanistischen Kolloquiums / Actas dal V. Colloqui retoromanistic. Lavin 2011, 105–124. Tübingen: Francke.</ref>

In the Engadinese written languages, Putèr and Vallader, Italian-influenced spellings, learned words, and derivations were previously abundant, for instance in Zaccaria Pallioppi's 1895 dictionary, but came under scrutiny at the start of the 20th century and were gradually eliminated from the written language. Following reforms of the written languages of the Engadine, many of these Italian words fell out of usage (such as ''contadin'' 'farmer' instead of ''paur'', ''nepotin'' 'nephew' rather than ''abiadi'', ''ogni'' 'everyone' instead of ''inmincha'', ''saimper'' 'always' instead of ''adüna'', and ''abbastanza'' 'enough' instead of ''avuonda''), while others persisted as synonyms of more traditional Ladin words (such as ''tribunal'' 'court' alongside ''drettüra'', ''chapir'' alongside ''incleger'', and ''testimoni'' 'witness' alongside ''perdütta'').

Aside from the written language, everyday Romansh was also influenced by Italian through the large number of emigrants, especially from the Engadine, to Italy, the so-called [[Randulin]]. These emigrants often returned with their Romansh speech influenced by Italian.<ref name="zora.uzh.ch">Grünert, Matthias (2010). Ein italienischer Streifzug durch die Rumantschia. Mitteilungen VBK ikg, (10):23–27. Retrieved Jan. 9, 2016 from https://www.zora.uzh.ch/33261/2/2010_02__Ein_Italienischer_Streifzug_durch_die_Rumantschia.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304065136/https://www.zora.uzh.ch/33261/2/2010_02__Ein_Italienischer_Streifzug_durch_die_Rumantschia.pdf |date=2016-03-04 }}</ref>

=== German loanwords ===
German loanwords entered Romansh as early as the Old High German period in the Early Middle Ages, and German has remained an important source of vocabulary since. Many of these words have been in use in Romansh for long enough that German speakers no longer recognize them as German, and for morphological derivations of them to have appeared, in particular through the suffix ''-egiar ~ iar'', as in Surs. ''baghegiar'', sut. ''biagear'', Surm. ''biagier'', Put. ''biager'', Vall. ''bear'' "to build", derived from Middle High German ''bûwen''. Other examples include ''malegiar'' "to paint" (← ''malen''), ''schenghegiar'' "to give (a present)" (← ''schenken''), ''schazegiar'' "to estimate" (← ''schätzen''),{{sfn|Liver|1999|p=176}} or Surs. ''betlegiar'' (sut. ''batlagear'', Surm./Put. ''batlager'', Vall. ''supetliar'') "to beg", derived from Swiss German ''bettle'' with the same meaning.{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=140}} Nouns derived from these verbs include ''maletg'' "painting", ''schenghetg'' "gift", ''schazetg'' "estimation", or ''bagetg'' "building".{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=140}} The adjective ''flissi'' "hard-working" has given rise to the noun ''flissiadad'' "industriousness". The word ''pur'' has given rise to derived words such as ''pura'' "farmwife, female farmer" or ''puranchel'' "small-time farmer", as has ''buob'' "boy" from Swiss German ''bueb'' "boy", with the derivations ''buoba'' "girl" and ''buobanaglia'' "crowd of children".

=== Italian, Ladin and Gallo-italic loanwords ===
Common nouns of Italian origin include ''resposta/risposta'' "answer", ''vista/vesta'' "view", ''proposta'' "proposal", ''surpresa/surpraisa'' "surprise", and ''offaisa/offesa'' "insult". In Ladin, many such nouns are borrowed or derived from Italian and end in –a, whereas the same group of nouns in Sursilvan frequently ends in –iun and where borrowed either from French or formed through analogy with Latin. Examples include ''pretensiun'' "opinion, claim" vs. ''pretaisa'', ''defensiun'' "defense" vs. ''defaisa'', or ''confirmaziun'' "confirmation" vs. ''conferma''.<ref name="zora.uzh.ch" />

Other Italian words used throughout Romansh include the words for "nail", which are derived from Italian ''acuto'' "sharp", which has yielded Sur. ''guota'', Sut. ''guta'', Surm. ''gotta'', and Ladin ''guotta/aguotta'', whereas the Romansh word for "sharp" itself (Rhenish: ''git'', Ladin ''agüz'') is derived from the same Latin source ACUTUM. Words from Lombard and [[Venetian language|Venetian]] related to crafts include Ladin ''marangun'' "carpenter" (← Venetian ''marangon''), as opposed to ''lennari'' in other Romansh dialects, ''chazzoula'' "trowel" (← Lombard ''cazzola''), or ''filadè'' "spinning wheel" (← Lombard ''filadel''). Other words include culinary items such as ''macaruns'' "macaroni" (← ''maccheroni''); ''tschiculatta/tschugalata'' "chocolate" (← ''cioccolata'' or Lombard ''ciculata/cicolata''), Ladin and Surmiran ''limun/limung'' "lemon" as opposed to Sursilvan ''citrona'' (← ''limone''), ''giabus/baguos'' "cabbage" (← Lombard ''gabüs''), ''chanella/canella'' "cinnamon" (← ''cannella''). In Sursilvan, the word ''ogna'' "flat cake" can be found, which is derived from Italian ''lasagna'', with the initial ''las-'' having been mistaken for the plural article, and the vowel having been adapted to Sursilvan sound patterns through analogy with words such as ''muntogna'' "mountain". Others are words for animals such as ''lodola'' "lark" (← ''lodola'') or ''randulina'' "swallow" (← Lombard ''randulina''), as well as Ladin ''scarafagi/scarvatg'' "beetle" (← ''scarafaggio''). Other Italian words include ''impostas'' "taxes" (← ''imposte''; as opposed to Rhenish ''taglia''), ''radunanza/radunonza'' "assembly" (← ''radunanza''), Ladin ''ravarenda'' "(Protestant) priest" (← ''reverendo''), ''bambin'' "Christmas child (giftbringer)" (← ''Gesù Bambino''), ''marchadant/marcadont'' "merchant" (← ''mercatante'') or ''butia/buteia'' "shop" (← ''bottega'').<ref name="zora.uzh.ch" />

In Ladin, Italian borrowings also include words groups not usually borrowed readily. Examples include pronouns such as ''qualchosa'' "something" (← ''qualcosa''), ''listess'' "the same one" (← Lombard or Venetian ''l'istess''), adverbs such as ''apunta'' "exactly" (← ''appunto''), ''magara/magari'' "fairly/quite" (← ''magari''), prepositions like ''dürant/duront'' "during" (← ''durante'') and ''malgrà/malgrad'' "despite" (← ''malgrado''), and conjunctions such as ''però'' "but" (← ''però'') and ''fin cha'' 'until' (← ''finché''). Most of these are confined to Ladin, with some exceptions such as Sursilvan ''magari'', ''duront'', and ''malgrad''.<ref name="zora.uzh.ch" />

=== Germanic calques ===
Aside from outright loanwords, the German influence on Romansh often takes the form of [[calque]]s, where Romanic vocabulary has taken on the meaning of German words, summed up by [[Languages of Italy|Italian dialect]][[Dialectology|olog]][[Linguist|ist]] [[Graziadio Isaia Ascoli]] in 1880 as "{{lang|it|materia romana e spirito tedesco}}" ("Roman body and German soul"). The earliest examples go back to [[Carolingian Empire|Carolingian]] times and show the influence of Germanic law. Such words include {{lang|rm|tschentament}} "statute", a derivation of the verb {{lang|rm|tschentar}} (from Latin *{{lang|la|sedentare}} "to sit") as an analogy to Middle High German {{lang|gmh|satzunge}} or Surs./sut./Surm. {{lang|rm|lètg}}, Put. {{lang|rm|alach}}, Vall. {{lang|rm|lai}} "marriage", derived from Latin {{lang|la|legem}} (accusative singular of {{lang|la|lēx}} "law"), with the meaning of Middle High German {{lang|gmh|ê, ewe}}.{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=141}} A more recent example of a loan translation is the verb {{lang|rm|tradir}} "to betray", which has taken on the additional meaning of German {{lang|de|verraten}} of "to give away"{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=142}} as in {{lang|rm|tradir in secret}} "to give away a secret", originally covered by the verb {{lang|rm|revelar}}.

Particularly common are combinations of verbs with [[locative adverb]]s, such as {{lang|rm|vegnir cun}} "to accompany" (literally "to come with"), {{lang|rm|vegnir anavos}} "to come back", {{lang|rm|far cun}} "to participate" (literally "to do with"), {{lang|rm|far giu}} "to agree on" (literally "to do down"), or {{lang|rm|grodar tras}} "to fail" (literally "to fall through"). Whereas such verbs also occur sporadically in other Romance languages as in French {{lang|fr|prendre avec}} "to take along" or Italian {{lang|it|andare via}} "to go away", the large number in Romansh suggests an influence of German, where this pattern is common.{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=142}} However, [[prepositional verb]]s are also common in the (Romance) [[Lombard language]] spoken in the bordering Swiss and Italian regions. The verbs {{lang|rm|far cun}} "to participate" or {{lang|rm|grodar tras}} "to fail" for example, are direct equivalents of German {{lang|de|mitmachen}} (from {{lang|de|mit}} "with" and {{lang|de|machen}} "to do") and {{lang|de|durchfallen}} (from {{lang|de|durch}} "through" and {{lang|de|fallen}} "to fall").

Less integrated into the Romansh verbal system are constructions following the pattern of {{lang|rm|far il}} ("doing the") + a German infinitive. Examples include {{lang|rm|far il}} {{lang|de|löten}} "to solder", {{lang|rm|far il}} {{lang|de|würzen}} "to season", or {{lang|rm|far il}} {{lang|de|vermissen}} "to miss, to feel the absence of".

German also often serves as a model for the creation of new words. An example is Surs. {{lang|rm|tschetschapuorla}} "vacuum cleaner", a compound of {{lang|rm|tschitschar}} "to suck" and {{lang|rm|puorla}} "dust", following the model of German {{lang|de|Staubsauger}} – the Italian word, {{lang|it|aspirapolvere}} possibly being itself a calque on the German word. The Engadinese dialects on the other hand have adopted {{lang|rm|aspiradur}} from Italian {{lang|it|aspiratore}}, which, however, does not mean "vacuum cleaner". A skyscraper, which is a direct loan translation from English in many Romance languages (as in French {{lang|fr|gratte-ciel}}, Italian {{lang|it|grattacielo}}), is a loan translation of German {{lang|de|Wolkenkratzer}} (literally "cloud-scraper") in Sursilvan: {{lang|rm|il sgrattaneblas}} (from {{lang|rm|sgrattar}} "to scratch" and {{lang|rm|neblas}} "clouds"). The Engadinese varieties again follow the Italian pattern of {{lang|rm|sgrattatschêl}} (from {{lang|rm|tschêl}} "sky").{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=143}} A more recent word is {{lang|rm|la natelnumra}} "the cell phone number", which follows the word order of Swiss German {{lang|gsw|Natelnummer}}, and is found alongside {{lang|rm|la numra da natel}}.

Examples of idiomatic expressions include Surs. {{lang|rm|dar in canaster}}, Engad. {{lang|rm|dar ün dschierl}}, a direct translation of German {{lang|de|einen Korb geben}}, literally meaning "to hand a basket", but used in the sense of "turning down a marriage proposal" or {{lang|rm|esser ligiongia ad enzatgi}}, a loan translation of the German expression {{lang|de|jemandem Wurst sein}}, literally meaning "to be sausage to someone" but meaning "not cared about, to be unimportant".{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=143}}

=== Morphosyntax ===
Apart from vocabulary, the influence of German is noticeable in grammatical constructions, which are sometimes closer to German than to other Romance languages.

For instance, Romansh is the only Romance language in which [[indirect speech]] is formed using the [[subjunctive mood]], as in Sursilvan {{lang|rm|El di ch'el seigi malsauns}}, Putèr {{lang|rm|El disch ch'el saja amalo}}, "He says that he is sick", as compared to Italian {{lang|it|Dice che è malato}} or French {{lang|fr|Il dit qu'il est malade}}. Ricarda Liver attributes this to the influence of German.{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=137}} Limited to Sursilvan is the insertion of entire phrases between auxiliary verbs and participles as in {{lang|rm|Cun Mariano Tschuor ha Augustin Beeli discurriu}} "Mariano Tschuor has spoken with Augustin Beeli" as compared to Engadinese {{lang|rm|Cun Rudolf Gasser ha discurrü Gion Peider Mischol}} "Rudolf Gasser has spoken with Gion Peider Mischol".{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=138}}

In contemporary spoken language, adjective forms are often not distinguished from adverbs, as in Sursilvan {{lang|rm|Jeu mon direct}} "I am going directly", rather than {{lang|rm|Jeu mon directamein}}. This usage is rare in most other Romance languages with a few sporadic exceptions as in French {{lang|fr|parler haut}} or Italian {{lang|it|vosà fort}} "speak aloud", and the common usage in colloquial Romansh is likely an influence from German.{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=137}}

Especially noticeable and often criticized by language purists are particles such as {{lang|rm|aber}}, {{lang|rm|schon}}, {{lang|rm|halt}}, {{lang|rm|grad}}, {{lang|rm|eba}}, or {{lang|rm|zuar}}, which have become an integral part of everyday Romansh speech, especially in Sursilvan.{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=145}}

Negation was originally formed by a double negative in all Romansh dialects. Today, this usage is limited to Surmiran as in {{lang|rm|ia na sa betg}} "I do not know" (it has also been included in panregional Rumantsch Grischun). While the first particle was lost in Sursilvan, where negation is now formed only with {{lang|rm|buc}} as in {{lang|rm|jeu sai buc}}, the Ladin varieties lost the second particle {{lang|rm|brich(a)}}, apparently under the influence of Italian, as in Putér {{lang|rm|eau nu se}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Uffer |first=Leza |year=1948 |title=La Negaziun an Rumantsch-Surmeir: cuntribuziun agls studis da morfologia e sintaxa digl lungatg rumantsch |journal=Annalas da la Societad Retorumantscha |page=93 |doi=10.5169/seals-216932}}</ref>

=== Romansh influences on German ===
The influence of Romansh on the local vernacular German has not been studied as thoroughly as vice versa. Apart from place names throughout the former speech area of Romansh, only a handful of Romansh words have become part of wider German usage. Such words include {{lang|gsw|Gletscher}} "glacier" or {{lang|gsw|Murmeltier}} "marmot" (derived from Romansh {{lang|rm|murmunt}}), as well as culinary items such as [[Maluns]] or [[Capuns]]. The Romansh influence is much stronger in the German dialects of Grisons. It is sometimes controversially suspected that the pronunciation {{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/h/}} in words such as {{lang|gsw|Khind}} and {{lang|gsw|bahe}}, as opposed to {{IPA|/x/}} in other Swiss German dialects ({{lang|gsw|Chind}} and {{lang|gsw|bache}}), is an influence of Romansh.<ref name="TDW2002">{{harvnb|Treffers-Daller|Willemyns|2002|pp=130–131}}</ref>

In morphosyntax, the use of the auxiliary verb {{lang|gsw|kho}} "to come" as opposed to {{lang|de|wird}} "will" in phrases such as {{lang|gsw|leg di warm a, sunscht khunscht krank}} ("put on warm clothes, otherwise you will get sick") in Grisons-German is sometimes attributed to Romansh, as well as the lack of a distinction between the accusative and dative case in some Grisons-German dialects and the word order in phrases such as {{lang|gsw|i tet froge jemand wu waiss}} ("I would ask someone who knows"). In addition, some words, neuter in most dialects of German, are masculine in Grisons-German. Examples include {{lang|gsw|der Brot}} "the bread" or {{lang|gsw|der Gäld}} "the money".<ref name="TDW2002" /> Common words of Romansh origin in Grisons-German include {{lang|gsw|Spus/Spüslig}} "bridegroom" and {{lang|gsw|Spus}} "bride", {{lang|gsw|Banitsch}} "cart used for moving dung", and {{lang|gsw|Pon}} "container made of wood". In areas where Romansh either is still spoken or has disappeared recently, Romansh words are even more common in the local dialects of German.

=== Attitudes towards language contact ===
The influence of German has been seen in different ways by linguists and language activists. The Italian dialectologist Ascoli for instance described Romansh as "a body that has lost its soul and taken on an entirely foreign one in its place" in the 1880s.<ref>{{harvnb|Liver|2009|p=145}}; Original Italian: {{lang|it|"un corpo che perde l'anima sua propria per assumerne un'altra di affatto estranea"}}</ref> This opinion was shared by many, who saw the influence of German as a threat to and corruption of Romansh, often referring to it as a disease infecting Romansh.{{sfn|Coray|2008}} This view was prevalent until after World War II, with many contemporary linguists and activists by contrast seeing these loan elements as completely natural and as an integral part of Romansh,{{sfn|Coray|2008|p=355}} which should be seen as an enrichment of the language.{{sfn|Liver|1999|p=175}} This position is currently held among others by the language activists Bernard Cathomas, Iso Camartin, or Alexi Decurtins, who argue for a relaxed attitude towards loan elements, which they point out are often among the most down-to-earth elements of the language, and that the dual nature of Romansh can also be seen as an advantage in being open to cultural elements from both sides.{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=145}} This position is also shared by several contemporary authors in particular from the Surselva, such as [[Arno Camenisch]], who makes heavy use of Germanisms in his works.