Editing Pope Pius IX (section)

==Policies toward other nations==
[[File:Giovanni_Orsi,_Portrait_of_Pope_Pius_IX_(1847).png|thumb|Pius IX in 1847]]
Pius IX was the last pope who also functioned as a secular ruler and the monarch of the [[Papal States under Pope Pius IX|Papal States]], ruling over some 3 million subjects from 1846 to 1870, when the newly founded [[Kingdom of Italy]] seized the remaining areas of the Papal States by force of arms. Contention between Italy and the Papacy was only resolved legally by the 1929 [[Lateran Treaty]] (''Lateran Pacts'' or ''Lateran Accords'') between the Kingdom of Italy under [[Mussolini]] and the [[Holy See]], the latter receiving financial compensation for the loss of the Papal States and recognition of the Vatican City State as the sovereign independent territory of the Holy See.

===Italy===
{{Main|Pope Pius IX and Italy}}
{{multiple image
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|image1 = Political manifestation in Rome (Speech of Pope Pius IX from the balcony of the Papal Palace) by Karl Bryullov.jpg
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|image2 = Karl Brullov 1850 Political demonstration in Rome in 1846.jpg
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|footer = Two paintings by [[Karl Bryullov]] showing the political situation of the time. (Left): Manifestation in Rome (Speech of Pope Pius IX from the balcony of the Papal Palace); (right): Demonstration in Rome in 1846
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Though he was well aware upon his accession of the political pressures within the [[Papal States]], Pius IX's first act was a general [[amnesty]] for [[political prisoner]]s, despite the potential consequences. The freed revolutionaries resumed their previous political activities, and his concessions only provoked greater demands as patriotic Italian groups sought not only a constitutional government – to which he was sympathetic – but also the [[unification of Italy]] under his leadership and a [[Italian irredentism|war of liberation]] to free the northern Italian provinces from the rule of Catholic Austria.{{sfn|Duffy|1997|p=223}}
By early 1848, all of Western Europe began to be convulsed in various [[Revolutions of 1848|revolutionary movements]].{{sfn|Rapport|2009}} The Pope, claiming to be above national interests, refused to go to war with Austria, which reversed Pius' popularity in his native Italy.{{sfn|Duffy|1997|p=223}} In a calculated, well-prepared move, [[Pellegrino Rossi|Prime Minister Rossi]] was assassinated on 15 November 1848, and in the days following, the [[Swiss Guard]]s were disarmed, making the Pope a prisoner in his palace.{{sfn|Schmidlin|1922–1939|p=35}} However, he succeeded in escaping Rome several days later.

A [[Roman Republic (1849)|Roman Republic]] was declared in February 1849. Pius responded from his exile by excommunicating all participants.{{sfn|De Mattei|2004|p=33}} After the suppression of the republic later that year, Pius appointed a conservative government of three cardinals known as the [[Red Triumvirate]] to administer the Papal States until his return to Rome in April 1850.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bibliotecasalaborsa.it/cronologia/bologna/1849/il_triumvirato_rosso|title=Il 'triumvirato rosso'|website=[[Biblioteca Salaborsa]]|language=it|access-date=29 May 2021}}</ref> He visited the hospitals to comfort the wounded and sick, but he seemed to have lost both his liberal tastes and his confidence in the Romans, who had turned against him in 1848.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} Pius decided to move his residence from the [[Quirinal Palace]] inside Rome to the Vatican, where popes have lived ever since.{{sfn|Schmidlin|1922–1939|p=45}}

==== End of the Papal States ====
[[File:St peters basilica interior drawing.jpg|thumb|Illustration of the inside of Saint Peter's Basilica in the 1870s, published by [[John Gilmary Shea]]]]

After defeating the Papal army on 18 September 1860 at the [[Battle of Castelfidardo]], and on 30 September at [[Ancona]], [[Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia]] took all the Papal territories except [[Latium]] with Rome and took the title [[King of Italy]].  Rome itself was [[Capture of Rome|invaded on 20 September 1870]] after a few-hours siege.<ref>{{cite book |first= David I.|last= Kertzer|author-link =David Kertzer|title= Prisoner of the Vatican: The Popes, the Kings, and Garibaldi's Rebels in the Struggle to Rule Modern Italy|year= 2006|publisher= Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|page=57|isbn= 0618619194}}</ref> Italy instituted the [[Law of Guarantees]] (13 May 1871) which gave the Pope the use of the Vatican but denied him sovereignty over this territory, nevertheless granting him the right to send and receive ambassadors and a budget of 3.25&nbsp;million [[Italian lira|lira]] annually. Pius IX officially rejected this offer (encyclical ''Ubi nos'', 15 May 1871), since it was a unilateral decision which did not grant the papacy international recognition and could be changed at any time by the secular parliament.

Pius IX refused to recognize the new Italian kingdom, which he denounced as an illegitimate creation of revolution. He excommunicated the nation's leaders, including King Victor Emmanuel II, whom he denounced as "forgetful of every religious principle, despising every right, trampling upon every law," whose reign over Italy was therefore "a sacrilegious usurpation."<ref>Schapiro, J. Salwyn, Ph.D., ''Modern and Contemporary European History (1815-1921)'' (Houghton Mifflin Company, The Riverside Press Cambridge, 1921, Revised Edition), p. 218</ref>

===Mexico===
[[File:Obelisco Jamay.jpg|thumb|Obelisk in honor of Pope Pius IX in [[Jamay]], Jalisco, Mexico]]
In response to the upheavals faced by the Papal States during the 1848 revolutions, the [[Second Federal Republic of Mexico|Mexican government]] offered Pope Pius IX asylum, which the pope responded to by considering the creation of a Mexican cardinal and granting an award to President [[José Joaquín de Herrera]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Bancroft|first=Hubert Howe|date=1879|title=History of Mexico volume V: 1824-1861|pages=591}}</ref> With French Emperor [[Napoleon III]]'s [[Second French intervention in Mexico|military intervention in Mexico]] and establishment of the [[Second Mexican Empire]] under [[Maximilian I of Mexico|Maximilian I]] in 1864, the church sought relief from a friendly government after the anti-clerical actions of [[Benito Juárez]], who had suspended payment on foreign debt and seized ecclesial property.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1861-1865/french-intervention | title=Milestones: 1861–1865 - Office of the Historian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Scholastic|first=Grolier Online|date=December 2018|title=Mexico: History|url=http://www.scholastic.com/browse/subarticle.jsp?id=1106|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181202155146/http://www.scholastic.com/browse/subarticle.jsp?id=1106|archive-date=2 December 2018|access-date=|website=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-09-22-mn-998-story.html |title = After 125 Years, Vatican, Mexico Restore Ties|website = [[Los Angeles Times]]|date = 22 September 1992}}</ref>

Pius blessed Maximilian and his wife [[Charlotte of Belgium]] before they set off for Mexico to begin their reign.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.casaimperial.org/emperador.htm |title=casa imperial de Mexico |publisher=Casaimperial.org |access-date=23 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130717124757/http://www.casaimperial.org/emperador.htm |archive-date=17 July 2013 }}</ref> But the friction between the Vatican and Mexico would continue with the new emperor when Maximilian insisted on freedom of religion, which Pius opposed. Relations with the Vatican would only be resumed when Maximilian sent the recently converted American Catholic priest Father Agustin Fischer to Rome as his envoy.{{citation needed|date=January 2010}}

Contrary to Fischer's reports back to Maximilian, the negotiations did not go well and the Vatican would not budge.{{sfn|O'Connor|1971}} Maximilian sent his wife Charlotte to Europe to plead with Napoleon III against the withdrawal of French troops from Mexico. After unsuccessful meetings with Napoleon III, Charlotte travelled to Rome to plead with Pius in 1866. As the days passed, Charlotte's mental state deteriorated.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Carlota|first=consort of Maximilian|title=Guide to the Charlotte and Maximilian Collection, 1846-1927 MS 356|url=https://legacy.lib.utexas.edu/taro/ricewrc/00116/rice-00116.html|access-date=18 May 2021|website=legacy.lib.utexas.edu|language=en}}</ref> She sought refuge with the pope, and she would eat and drink only what was prepared for him, fearful that everything else might be poisoned. The pope, though alarmed, accommodated her, and even agreed to let her stay in the Vatican one night after she voiced anxiety about her safety. She and her assistant were the first women to stay the night inside the Vatican.{{sfn|Michael|2002}}

===England and Wales===
England for centuries was considered missionary territory for the Catholic Church.{{sfn|Franzen|Bäumer|1988|p=363}} In the wake of [[Catholic emancipation]] in the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] (which included all of Ireland), Pius IX changed that with the bull ''[[Universalis Ecclesiae]]'' (29 September 1850). He re-established the Catholic hierarchy in England and Wales, under the newly appointed Archbishop and Cardinal [[Nicholas Wiseman]] with 12 additional episcopal seats: [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Southwark|Southwark]], [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Hexham and Newcastle|Hexham]], [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Beverley|Beverley]], [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Liverpool|Liverpool]], [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Salford|Salford]], [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Shrewsbury|Shrewsbury]], [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Newport and Menevia|Newport]], [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Clifton|Clifton]], [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Plymouth|Plymouth]], [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Nottingham|Nottingham]], [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Birmingham|Birmingham]], and [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Northampton|Northampton]].{{sfn|Shea|1877|p=195}} Some violent street protests against the "papal aggression" resulted in the passage of the [[Ecclesiastical Titles Act 1851]], which forbade any Catholic bishop to use an episcopal title "of any city, town or place, or of any territory or district (under any designation or description whatsoever), in the United Kingdom".<ref name=Act>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RylcAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA89 |page=89 |title=Reports from Committees |year=1867 }}</ref> The law was never enforced and was [[repeal]]ed twenty years later.<ref>{{UK-LEG|title=Ecclesiastical Titles Act 1871}}</ref>

=== Ireland ===
Pius donated money to [[History of Ireland (1801–1923)|Ireland]] during the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Irish Famine sparked international fundraising |url=https://www.irishcentral.com/roots/irish-famine-sparked-international-fundraising-237694651 |work=IrishCentral |date=10 May 2010}}</ref> In 1847, he addressed the suffering Irish people in the encyclical ''[[Praedecessores nostros]]''.

===Netherlands===
The Dutch government instituted religious freedom for Catholics in 1848.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Culture and Customs of the Netherlands|last=Roney|first=John|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=2009|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=64}}</ref> In 1853, Pius erected the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Utrecht|Archdiocese of Utrecht]] and four dioceses in [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Haarlem-Amsterdam|Haarlem]], [[Roman Catholic Diocese of 's-Hertogenbosch|Den Bosch]], [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Breda|Breda]], and [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Roermond|Roermond]] under it. As in England, this resulted in a brief popular outburst of anti-Catholic sentiment.{{sfn|Shea|1877|pp=205–206}}

===Spain===
Traditionally Catholic Spain offered a challenge to Pius IX as anti-clerical governments came to power in 1832, resulting in the expulsion of religious orders; the closing of convents, Catholic schools and libraries; the seizure and sale of churches and religious properties; and the inability of the church to fill vacant dioceses.{{sfn|Shea|1877|p=204}} In 1851, Pius IX concluded a concordat with Queen [[Isabella II of Spain|Isabella II]] stipulating that unsold ecclesial properties were to be returned, while the church renounced properties that had already passed to new owners. This flexibility of Pius led to Spain guaranteeing the freedom of the church in religious education.{{sfn|Shea|1877|p=204}}

===United States===
{{Main|Pope Pius IX and the United States}}
[[File:George Peter Alexander Healy - John McCloskey - NPG.65.68 - National Portrait Gallery.jpg|thumb|Pius IX elevated [[John McCloskey]] as the first American to the [[College of Cardinals]] on 15 March 1875]]

Pope Pius IX approved on 7 February 1847 the unanimous request of the American bishops that the [[Immaculate Conception]] be invoked as the [[Patroness]] of the United States. Beginning in October 1862, the Pope began sending public letters to Catholic leaders in the United States calling for an end to the "destructive [[American Civil War|Civil War]]."<ref>Doyle, Don H. ''The Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War'' (2015), p. 261.</ref> According to historian [[Don H. Doyle]], however, "During the American Civil War, the pope ... urged American bishops to call for peace at a time when peace meant separation, and privately he expressed strong sympathies with the South. The Confederacy sent envoys to enlist Pio Nono in their cause and came away boasting the most powerful pontiff in Europe had recognized the Confederacy. The pope said nothing to refute such claims...."<ref>Doyle, Don H., ''The Age of Reconstruction: How Lincoln's New Birth of Freedom Remade the World''. Princeton, NJ, and Oxford, UK: Princeton University Press (2024), p. 264.</ref>

The Vatican never recognized the [[Confederate States of America]] or sent any diplomats to it. However, in 1863 the pope did meet privately with a Confederate envoy and suggested gradual emancipation.<ref>Doyle, Don H. ''The Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War'' (2015), p. 264.</ref> A letter of Pius IX to [[Jefferson Davis]] in December 1863, addressing him as "Praesidi foederatorum Americae regionum" (President of the federated regions of America), was not seen as recognition of the Confederacy, even by its own officials: Confederate Secretary of State [[Judah P. Benjamin]] interpreted it as "a mere inferential recognition, unconnected with political action or the regular establishment of diplomatic relations" without the weight of formal recognition.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=DuqdUu7EctIC&dq=a+mere+inferential+recognition&pg=PA1015 ''Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion''], p. 1015.</ref> Pius IX elevated Archbishop [[John McCloskey]] of New York as the first American to the [[College of Cardinals]] on 15 March 1875.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fordhamprep.org/page.cfm?p=4829 |title=John Cardinal McCloskey |location=New York |publisher=Fordham Preparatory School |access-date=6 June 2016}}</ref>

===Canada===
Pius IX increased the number of Canadian dioceses from four to 21, with 1,340 churches and 1,620 priests in 1874.{{sfn|Schmidlin|1922–1939|p=212}}

===Concordats===
Pius IX signed concordats with Spain, Austria, [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany|Tuscany]], [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]], [[Haiti]], [[Honduras]], [[Ecuador]], [[Nicaragua]], [[El Salvador]], and [[Russian Empire|Russia]].{{sfn|Franzen|Bäumer|1988|p=364}}

===Austria===
The [[1848 revolution]] had mixed results for the Catholic Church in [[Austria-Hungary]]. It freed the church from the heavy hand of the state in its internal affairs, which was applauded by Pius IX. Similar to other countries, Austria-Hungary had significant anti-Catholic political movements, mainly [[Liberalism in Austria|liberals]], which forced the emperor [[Franz Joseph I of Austria|Franz-Joseph I]] in 1870 to renounce the [[Concordat of 1855]] with the Vatican. Austria had already in 1866 nullified several of its sections concerning the freedom of Catholic schools and prohibition of civil marriages.{{sfn|Franzen|Bäumer|1988|p=362}} After diplomatic approaches failed, Pius responded on 7 March 1874 with the encyclical ''Vix dum a nobis'', demanding religious freedom and freedom of education.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} Despite these developments, there was no equivalent to the German [[Kulturkampf]] in Austria, and Pius created new dioceses throughout Austria-Hungary.{{sfn|Schmidlin|1922–1939|pp=141–143}}

[[File:Expulsion of the Russian envoy to the Holy See Felix von Meyendorff by Pope Pius IX.PNG|thumb|Expulsion of the Russian envoy Felix von Meyendorff by Pope Pius IX for insulting the Catholic faith]]

===German Empire===
{{Main|Pope Pius IX and Germany|Kulturkampf}}
In [[German Empire|Germany]], the state of [[Prussia]], under the leadership of [[Otto von Bismarck]], saw Catholicism as a dangerous foreign influence, and in 1872–1878 fought hard to reduce the power of the pope and the bishops. After years of struggle in the [[Kulturkampf]], the Catholics fought back by mobilising their voters in Prussia and in Germany as a whole. After Pius died, Bismarck came to terms with the new [[Pope Leo XIII]]. He dropped his alliance with the anti-Catholic Liberals and instead formed a political coalition with the Catholic [[Centre Party (Germany)|Centre Party]].<ref>Ronald J. Ross, "Enforcing the Kulturkampf in the Bismarckian state and the limits of coercion in imperial Germany." ''Journal of Modern History'' (1984): 456-482. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1880020 online]</ref>

===Russian Empire===
{{Main|Pope Pius IX and Russia|Pope Pius IX and Poland}}
The [[Pontificate]] of Pius IX began in 1847 with an "Accomodamento", a generous agreement, which allowed Pius to fill vacant [[episcopal see]]s of the Latin rites both in Russia (specifically the Baltic countries) and in the Polish provinces of Russia.{{Citation needed|date=  January 2010}} The short-lived freedoms were undermined by the [[Russian Orthodox Church]],{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} Polish political aspirations in the occupied lands,{{Citation needed|date= January 2010}} and the tendency of imperial Russia to act against any dissent. Pius first tried to position himself in the middle, strongly opposing revolutionary and violent opposition against the Russian authorities and appealing to them for more ecclesiastical freedom.{{sfn|Schmidlin|1934|pp= 213–224}} After the failure of the [[January Uprising|Polish uprising]] in 1863, Pius sided with the persecuted Poles, protesting against their persecutions, and infuriating the Tsarist government to the point that all Catholic dioceses were eliminated by 1870.{{sfn|Shea|1877|pp= 274ff}} Pius criticized the Tsar&nbsp;– without naming him&nbsp;– for expatriating whole communities to Siberia, exiling priests, condemning them to [[Katorga|labour camps]] and abolishing Catholic dioceses.{{Citation needed|date= January 2010}} He pointed to Siberian villages [[Tunka (village)|Tounka]] and [[Irkutsk|Irkout]], where in 1868, 150 Catholic priests were awaiting death.{{sfn|Shea|1877|p= 277}}