Editing Monism (section)

=== Abrahamic faiths ===
{{original research|section|date=April 2024}}

==== Judaism ====
{{Main|Judaism}}
Jewish thought considers God as [[transcendence (religion)|separate from all physical, created things]] and as existing outside of time.{{refn|group=note|For a discussion of the resultant [[paradox]], see ''[[Tzimtzum]]''.}}{{refn|group=note|See also [[Negative theology#In the Jewish tradition|Negative theology]].}}

According to [[Maimonides]], God is an [[Incorporeality|incorporeal being]] that caused all other existence; to admit [[wikt:wiki/corporeal|corporeality]] to God is tantamount to admitting complexity to God, which is a contradiction to God as the [[Unmoved mover#First cause|first cause]] and constitutes [[Heresy in Judaism|heresy]].<ref name="FoL-1">See ''Foundations of the Law'', Chapter 1</ref> While [[Hasidic]] mystics considered the existence of the physical world a contradiction to God's [[Divine simplicity#In Jewish thought|simpleness]], Maimonides saw no contradiction.{{refn|group=note|See the "Guide for the Perplexed", especially chapter I:50.}}

According to [[Hasidic thought]] (particularly as propounded by the 18th century, early 19th-century founder of [[Chabad]], [[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]]), God is held to be [[immanent]] within [[Genesis creation myth|creation]] for two interrelated reasons:
# A very strong Jewish belief is that "[t]he Divine life-force which brings [the universe] into existence must constantly be present ... were this life-force to forsake [the universe] for even one brief moment, it would revert to a state of utter nothingness, as before the creation ..."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.chabad.org/library/tanya/tanya_cdo/aid/7988/jewish/Chapter-2.htm |title=Chapter 2 |website=Chabad.org |access-date=24 January 2019}}</ref>
# Simultaneously, Judaism holds as [[axiom]]atic that God is an absolute unity, and that he is perfectly simple, thus, if his sustaining power is within nature, then his essence is also within nature.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}

==== Christianity ====
{{See also|Christian anthropology}}

===== Creator–creature distinction =====
Christians maintain that God created the universe ''[[ex nihilo]]'' and not from his own substance, so that the creator is not to be confused with creation, but rather [[transcendence (religion)|transcends]] it. There is a movement of "[[Panentheism#Christianity|Christian Panentheism]]".<ref>{{Cite book |title=In whom we live and move and have our being : panentheistic reflections on God's presence in a scientific world |last1=Clayton |first1=Philip |last2=Peacocke |first2=A. R. |date=2004 |publisher=William B. Eerdmans Pub |isbn=0-8028-0978-2 |oclc=53880197}}</ref>

===== Rejection of radical dualism =====
In ''[[On Free Choice of the Will]]'', [[Augustine]] argued, in the context of [[the problem of evil]], that evil is not the opposite of good, but rather merely the absence of good, something that does not have existence in itself. Likewise, [[C. S. Lewis]] described evil as a "parasite" in ''[[Mere Christianity]]'', as he viewed evil as something that cannot exist without good to provide it with existence. Lewis went on to argue against dualism from the basis of [[moral absolutism]], and rejected the dualistic notion that God and [[Satan]] are opposites, arguing instead that God has no equal, hence no opposite. Lewis rather viewed Satan as the opposite of [[Michael the archangel]]. Due to this, Lewis instead argued for a more limited type of dualism.<ref>Lewis, C. S. 1970, "God and Evil" in ''God in the Dock: Essays in Theology and Ethics'', ed. W. Hooper, Grand Rapids, [[Michigan|MI]]: Eerdsman, pp. 21–24</ref> Other theologians, such as [[Greg Boyd (theologian)|Greg Boyd]], have argued in more depth that the Biblical authors held a "limited dualism", meaning that God and Satan do engage in real battle, but only due to free will given by God, for the duration that God allows.<ref>Boyd, Gregory. A 1971, ''God at War'', Downers Grove, [[Illinois|IL]]: InterVarsity Press, p. 185</ref>

===== Mormonism =====
{{religious text primary|date=December 2022}}
{{Main|Materialism#Christianity|Materialism and Christianity}}
[[Mormonism|Latter Day Saint]] theology also expresses a form of [[Dual aspect theory|dual-aspect]] monism via [[materialism]] and [[Eternity of the world|eternalism]], claiming that creation was ex materia (as opposed to ex nihilo in conventional Christianity), as expressed by [[Parley Pratt]] and echoed in view by the movement's founder [[Joseph Smith]], making no distinction between the spiritual and the material, these being not just similarly eternal, but ultimately two manifestations of the same reality or substance.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Wrestling the angel : the foundations of Mormon thought: cosmos, God, humanity |last=Terryl |first=Givens |isbn=978-0-19-979492-8 |location=Oxford |oclc=869757526 |year=2015}}</ref>

Parley Pratt implies a [[vitalism]] paired with evolutionary adaptation noting, "these eternal, self-existing elements possess in themselves certain inherent properties or attributes, in a greater or less degree; or, in other words, they possess intelligence, adapted to their several spheres."<ref>{{Cite book |title=Key to the Science of Theology. |last=Pratt |first=Parley |location=Liverpool |year=1855}}</ref>

Parley Pratt's view is also similar to Gottfried Leibniz's [[monadology]], which holds that "reality consists of mind atoms that are living centers of force."<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Theological Foundations of the Mormon Religion. |last=McMurrin |first=Sterling |location=Salt Lake City |year=1965}}</ref>

[[Brigham Young]] anticipates a proto-mentality of elementary particles with his vitalist view, "there is life in all matter, throughout the vast extent of all the eternities; it is in the rock, the sand, the dust, in water, air, the gases, and in short, in every description and organization of matter; whether it be solid, liquid, or gaseous, particle operating with particle."<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Complete Discourses of Brigham Young. |last=Van Wagoner |first=Richard S. |location=Salt Lake City |year=2009}}</ref>

The LDS conception of matter is "essentially dynamic rather than static, if indeed it is not a kind of living energy, and that it is subject at least to the rule of intelligence."<ref>{{Cite book |title=Process Theology: What It Is and Is Not. In Mormonism in Dialogue with Contemporary Christian Theologies. |last=Griffin |first=David Ray |location=Macon, GA |year=2007}}</ref>

[[John A. Widstoe]] held a similar, more vitalist view, that "Life is nothing more than matter in motion; that, therefore, all matter possess a kind of life... Matter... [is] intelligence... hence everything in the universe is alive." However, Widstoe resisted outright affirming a belief in [[panpsychism]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Joseph Smith as Scientist. |last=Widstoe |first=John A. |location=Salt Lake City |year=1908}}</ref>

==== Islam ====
{{See also|Tawhid}}

===== Quran =====
[[Vincent Cornell]] argues that the [[Quran]] provides a monist image of God by describing reality as a unified whole, with God being a single concept that would describe or ascribe all existing things.<ref name="Yusuf-2009">{{cite book |last1=Yusuf |first1=Hamza |title=The Creed of Imam al-Tahawi |date=2009 |publisher=Zaytuna Institute |isbn=978-0-9702843-9-6}}</ref>

But most argue that Abrahamic religious scriptures, especially the Quran, see creation and God as two separate existences. It explains that everything has been created by God and is under his control, but at the same time distinguishes creation as being dependent on the existence of God.<ref name="Yusuf-2009" />

===== Sufism =====
{{See also|Sufism}}
Some Sufi mystics advocate monism. One of the most notable being the 13th-century Persian poet [[Rumi]] (1207–1273) in his didactic poem ''[[Masnavi]]'' espoused monism.<ref name="nicholson">[http://www.globalwebpost.com/farooqm/study_res/rumi/intro_nicholson.html Reynold Nicholson ''Rumi''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061017141204/http://www.globalwebpost.com/farooqm/study_res/rumi/intro_nicholson.html |date=2006-10-17 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rumi.org.uk/sufism/persian_sufism.htm |title=Cyprian Rice (1964) ''The Persian Sufism'' George Allen, London |access-date=2008-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516025909/http://www.rumi.org.uk/sufism/persian_sufism.htm |archive-date=2008-05-16 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Rumi says in the [[Masnavi]],
{{blockquote|In the shop for Unity (wahdat); anything that you see there except the One is an idol.<ref name="nicholson" />}}

Other Sufi mystics however, such as [[Ahmad Sirhindi]], upheld dualistic Monotheism (the separation of God and the Universe).<ref>Saleem, Abdul Qadeer. A CRITICAL STUDY OF MUJADDID ALF-E THANI'S PHILOSOPHY. Diss. University of Karachi, 1998. pp.59-60</ref>

The most influential of the [[Islam]]ic monists was the Sufi philosopher [[Ibn Arabi]] (1165–1240). He developed the concept of 'unity of being' (Arabic: ''[[Sufi metaphysics|waḥdat al-wujūd]]''), which some argue is a monistic philosophy.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} Born in [[al-Andalus]], he made an enormous impact on the Muslim world, where he was crowned "the great Master". In the centuries following his death, his ideas became increasingly controversial. [[Ahmad Sirhindi]] criticised monistic understanding of 'unity of being', advocating the dualistic-compatible 'unity of witness' (Arabic: ''[[Sufi metaphysics#Waḥdat asḥ-Shuhūd|wahdat ash-shuhud]]''), maintaining separation of creator and creation.<ref>Siddiqui, B. H. "Islam: Synthesis of Tradition and Change."</ref><ref>Ansari, Abdul Haq. "SHAYKH AḤMAD SIRHINDĪ'S DOCTRINE OF" WAḤDAT AL-SHUHŪD"." Islamic Studies 37.3 (1998): 281-313.</ref><ref>Knysh, Alexander D. Ibn'Arabi in the later Islamic tradition: The making of a polemical image in medieval Islam. Suny Press, 1999.</ref><ref>Nizami, F. A. "23 Islam in the Indian Sub-Continent." The World's Religions (2004): 368.</ref> Later, [[Shah Waliullah Dehlawi]] reconciled the two ideas maintaining that their differences are semantic differences, arguing that the universal existence (which is different in creation to creator) and the divine essence are different and that the universal existence emanates (in a non-platonic sense) from the divine essence and that the relationship between them is similar to the relationship between the number four and a number being even.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Hafiz |last=Khan |year=1998 |contribution=Shah Wali Allah (Qutb al-Din Ahmad al-Rahim) (1703–62) |encyclopedia=[[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy|Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |publisher=[[Routledge]]}}</ref><ref>Ansari, Abdul Haq. "Shah waliy Allah Attempts to Revise wahdat al-wujud." Arabica 35.2 (1988): 197-213.</ref>

===== Shi'ism =====
{{See also|Shi'ism}}
The doctrine of ''[[Sufi metaphysics|waḥdat al-wujūd]]'' also enjoys considerable following in the rationalist philosophy of [[Twelver Shi'ism]], with the most famous modern-day adherent being [[Ruhollah Khomeini]].<ref>Knysh, Alexander. "'Irfan' Revisited: Khomeini and the Legacy of Islamic Mystical Philosophy", 633.</ref>

==== Baháʼí Faith ====
{{Main|Baháʼí Faith and the unity of religion}}
Although the [[Baháʼí teachings|teachings]] of the [[Baháʼí Faith]] have a strong emphasis on social and ethical issues, there exist a number of foundational texts that have been described as mystical.<ref>{{Cite book |year=1992 |contribution=The Baháʼí Faith |title=Britannica Book of the Year |isbn=0-85229-486-7 |editor1=Daphne Daume |editor2=Louise Watson |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |location=Chicago |url=https://archive.org/details/1988britannicabo0000daum}}</ref> Some of these include statements of a monist nature (e.g., ''[[The Seven Valleys]]'' and the ''[[Hidden Words]]''). The differences between dualist and monist views are reconciled by the teaching that these opposing viewpoints are caused by differences in the observers themselves, not in that which is observed. This is not a 'higher truth/lower truth' position. God is unknowable. For man it is impossible to acquire any direct knowledge of God or the Absolute, because any knowledge that one has, is relative.<ref>{{cite book |last=Momen |first=Moojan |year=1988 |title=Studies in the Bábí and Baháʼí Religions vol. 5, chapter: A Basis For Baháʼí Metaphysics |publisher=Kalimat Press |pages=185–217 |url=http://bahai-library.com/momen_relativism_bahai_metaphysics |isbn=0-933770-72-3}}</ref>