Editing Middle Ages (section)

=== Technology and military ===
{{Main|Medieval technology|Medieval warfare|History of science#Science in the Middle Ages}}
{{further|List of medieval European scientists}}
[[File:Tommaso da modena, ritratti di domenicani (Ugo di Provenza) 1352 150cm, treviso, ex convento di san niccolò, sala del capitolo.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Cardinal [[Hugh of Saint-Cher]] by [[Tommaso da Modena]], 1352, the first known depiction of [[spectacles]]<ref>Ilardi, ''Renaissance Vision'', pp.&nbsp;18–19</ref>]]

In the 12th and 13th centuries, Europe experienced economic growth and innovations in methods of production. Significant technological advances included the invention of the [[windmill]], the first mechanical clocks, the manufacture of [[distilled spirits]], and the use of the [[astrolabe]].<ref name=Backman246>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' p. 246</ref> Concave spectacles were invented around 1286 by an unknown Italian artisan, probably working in or near Pisa.<ref>Ilardi, ''Renaissance Vision'', pp.&nbsp;4–5, 49</ref>

The development of a three-field [[Crop rotation|rotation system]] for planting crops<ref name=Backman156 />{{efn-ua|It had spread to Northern Europe by 1000 and had reached Poland by the 12th century.<ref name=Epstein45>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' p. 45</ref>}} increased the usage of land from one-half in use each year under the old two-field system to two-thirds under the new system, with a consequent increase in production.<ref name=Epstein45 /> The development of the [[Plough|heavy plough]] allowed heavier soils to be farmed more efficiently, aided by the spread of the [[horse collar]], which led to the use of [[Working animal|draught horses]] in place of oxen. Horses are faster than oxen and require less pasture, factors that aided the implementation of the three-field system.<ref name=Backman156-59>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 156–159</ref> Legumes – such as peas, beans, or lentils – were grown more widely as crops, in addition to the usual cereal crops of wheat, oats, barley, and rye.<ref name=Barber80>Barber ''Two Cities'' p. 80</ref>

The construction of [[cathedral]]s and castles advanced building technology, developing large stone buildings. Ancillary structures included new town halls, houses, bridges, and [[tithe barn]]s.<ref name=Barber68>Barber ''Two Cities'' p. 68</ref> Shipbuilding improved with the use of the [[Boat building|rib and plank]] method rather than the old Roman system of [[mortise and tenon]]. Other improvements to ships included the use of [[lateen]] sails and the [[rudder#Medieval Europe|stern-post rudder]], both of which increased the speed at which ships could be sailed.<ref name=Barber73>Barber ''Two Cities'' p. 73</ref>

In military affairs, the use of infantry with specialised roles increased. Along with the still-dominant heavy cavalry, armies often included mounted and infantry [[crossbowmen]], as well as [[sapper]]s and engineers.<ref name=NicolleWestern125>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 125</ref> Crossbows, which had been known in Late Antiquity, increased in use partly because of the increase in [[siege]] warfare in the 10th and 11th centuries.<ref name="NicolleWestern80" />{{efn-ua|Crossbows are slow to reload, which limits their use on open battlefields. In sieges, slowness is not as big a disadvantage as the crossbowman, who can hide behind fortifications while reloading.<ref name=Daily124>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 124</ref>}} The increasing use of crossbows during the 12th and 13th centuries led to the use of closed-face [[Combat helmet|helmets]], heavy body armour, as well as [[horse armour]].<ref name=NicolleWestern130>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 130</ref> [[Gunpowder]] was known in Europe by the mid-13th century with a recorded use in European warfare by the English against the Scots in 1304. However, it was merely used as an explosive and not as a weapon. [[Cannon]] were being used for sieges in the 1320s, and hand-held guns were in use by the 1360s.<ref name=Nicolle296 />