Editing Meteorology (section)

==Applications==

===Weather forecasting===
{{Main|Weather forecasting}}
[[File:Day5pressureforecast.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Forecast of surface pressures five days into the future for the north Pacific, North America, and north Atlantic Ocean]]

Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] at a future time and given location. Humans have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia and formally since at least the 19th century.<ref>{{cite web|website=Mistic House |url=http://www.mistichouse.com/astrology-lessons.htm |title=Astrology Lessons |access-date=12 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080608133837/http://www.mistichouse.com/astrology-lessons.htm |archive-date=8 June 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Eric D. |last=Craft |url=http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/craft.weather.forcasting.history|title=An Economic History of Weather Forecasting |date=7 October 2001 |website=EH.net |publisher=[[Economic History Association]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070503193324/http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/craft.weather.forcasting.history |archive-date=3 May 2007 |url-status=dead |access-date=15 April 2007}}</ref> Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative [[data]] about the current state of the atmosphere and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere will evolve.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/WxForecasting/wx2.html |title=Weather Forecasting Through the Ages |work=NASA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050910210732/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/WxForecasting/wx2.html |archive-date=10 September 2005 |url-status=dead |access-date=25 May 2008}}</ref>

Once an all-human endeavor based mainly upon changes in [[Atmospheric pressure|barometric pressure]], current weather conditions, and sky condition,<ref>{{cite web|website=The Weather Doctor |url=http://www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/eyes/barometer3.htm |title=Applying The Barometer To Weather Watching |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509105153/http://www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/eyes/barometer3.htm |archive-date=9 May 2008 |url-status=dead |access-date=25 May 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Mark |last=Moore |date=2003 |url=http://www.nwac.us/education_resources/Field_forecasting.pdf |title=Field Forecasting—a short summary |work=[[Northwest Weather and Avalanche Center|NWAC]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325034756/http://www.nwac.us/education_resources/Field_forecasting.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2009 |url-status=dead |access-date=25 May 2008}}</ref> [[numerical weather prediction|forecast models]] are now used to determine future conditions. Human input is still required to pick the best possible forecast model to base the forecast upon, which involves pattern recognition skills, [[teleconnection]]s, knowledge of model performance, and knowledge of model biases. The [[chaos theory|chaotic]] nature of the atmosphere, the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere, error involved in measuring the initial conditions, and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes mean that forecasts become less accurate as the difference in current time and the time for which the forecast is being made (the ''range'' of the forecast) increases. The use of ensembles and model consensus help narrow the error and pick the most likely outcome.<ref name="Klaus">{{cite web|first1=Klaus |last1=Weickmann |first2=Jeff |last2=Whitaker |first3=Andres |last3=Roubicek |first4=Catherine |last4=Smith |url=http://www.cdc.noaa.gov/spotlight/12012001/ |title=The Use of Ensemble Forecasts to Produce Improved Medium Range (3–15 days) Weather Forecasts |publisher=[[Earth System Research Laboratories]] |website=cdc.noaa.gov |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215055130/http://www.cdc.noaa.gov/spotlight/12012001/ |archive-date=15 December 2007 |url-status=dead |access-date=16 February 2007}}</ref><ref name="TBK">{{cite web |first=Todd |last=Kimberlain |url=http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/research/TropicalTalk.ppt |title=TC Genesis, Track, and Intensity Forecating [sic] |website=wpc.ncep.noaa.gov |date=June 2007 |access-date=21 July 2007 |archive-date=27 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227154914/http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/research/TropicalTalk.ppt |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Richard J. Pasch, Mike Fiorino, and [[Chris Landsea]]. [http://www.emc.ncep.noaa.gov/research/NCEP-EMCModelReview2006/TPC-NCEP2006.ppt TPC/NHC’S REVIEW OF THE NCEP PRODUCTION SUITE FOR 2006.]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Retrieved on 5 May 2008.</ref>

There are a variety of end uses to weather forecasts. Weather warnings are important forecasts because they are used to protect life and property.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.weather.gov/mission.shtml |title=National Weather Service Mission Statement |website=weather.gov |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612134118/http://www.weather.gov/mission.shtml |archive-date=12 June 2008 |url-status=dead |access-date=25 May 2008 }}</ref> Forecasts based on temperature and [[Precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] are important to agriculture,<ref>{{cite web|first=Blair |last=Fannin |url=http://southwestfarmpress.com/news/061406-Texas-weather/ |title=Dry weather conditions continue for Texas |date=14 June 2006 |work=Southwest Farm Press |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703095038/http://southwestfarmpress.com/news/061406-Texas-weather/ |archive-date=3 July 2009 |url-status=dead |access-date=26 May 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Terry |last=Mader |url=http://beef.unl.edu/stories/200004030.shtml |title=Drought Corn Silage |date=3 April 2000 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska–Lincoln]] |website=beef.unl.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005203246/http://beef.unl.edu/stories/200004030.shtml |archive-date=5 October 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date=26 May 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Kathryn C. |last=Taylor |url=http://pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs/pubcd/C877.htm |title=Peach Orchard Establishment and Young Tree Care |date=March 2005 |publisher=[[University of Georgia]] |website=pubs.caes.uga.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224112403/http://pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs/pubcd/C877.htm |archive-date=24 December 2008 |url-status=dead |access-date=26 May 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/01/14/us/after-freeze-counting-losses-to-orange-crop.html |title=After Freeze, Counting Losses to Orange Crop |date=14 January 1991 |work=The New York Times |agency=[[Associated Press]] |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615190918/https://www.nytimes.com/1991/01/14/us/after-freeze-counting-losses-to-orange-crop.html |archive-date=15 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> and therefore to commodity traders within stock markets. Temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days.<ref>{{cite web|work=The New York Times |agency=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/02/26/business/futures-options-cold-weather-brings-surge-in-prices-of-heating-fuels.html |title=FUTURES/OPTIONS; Cold Weather Brings Surge In Prices of Heating Fuels |date=26 February 1993 |access-date=25 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615135320/https://www.nytimes.com/1993/02/26/business/futures-options-cold-weather-brings-surge-in-prices-of-heating-fuels.html |archive-date=15 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/5212724.stm |title=Heatwave causes electricity surge |work=BBC News |date=25 July 2006 |access-date=25 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090520060913/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/5212724.stm |archive-date=20 May 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tcdsb.org/environment/energydrill/EDSP_KeyMessages_FINAL.pdf |title=The seven key messages of the Energy Drill program |website=tcdsb.org/environment/energydrill |publisher=[[Toronto Catholic District School Board]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217042744/http://www.tcdsb.org/environment/energydrill/EDSP_KeyMessages_FINAL.pdf |archive-date=17 February 2012 |url-status=dead |access-date=25 May 2008}}</ref> On an everyday basis, people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear. Since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by heavy rain, snow, and [[wind chill]], forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events, and to plan ahead and survive them.

===Aviation meteorology===
Aviation meteorology deals with the impact of weather on [[air traffic control|air traffic management]].<ref>{{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Aviation |first=David W. |last=Wragg |isbn=9780850451634 |edition=first |publisher=Osprey |year=1973 |page=190}}</ref> It is important for air crews to understand the implications of weather on their flight plan as well as their aircraft, as noted by the ''[[Aeronautical Information Manual]]'':<ref>An international version called the [[Aeronautical Information Publication]] contains parallel information, as well as specific information on the international airports for use by the international community.</ref>
<blockquote>The effects of ice on aircraft are cumulative—thrust is reduced, drag increases, lift lessens, and weight increases. The results are an increase in stall speed and a deterioration of aircraft performance. In extreme cases, 2 to 3 inches of ice can form on the leading edge of the airfoil in less than 5 minutes. It takes but 1/2 inch of ice to reduce the lifting power of some aircraft by 50 percent and increases the frictional drag by an equal percentage.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/aim_html/chap7_section_1.html |publisher=[[Federal Aviation Administration]], Dept. of Transportation |title=Aeronautical Information Manual, Section 1. Meteorology: 7-1-21. PIREPs Relating to Airframe Icing |date=2020-07-16 |access-date=2020-08-17 |website=AIM Online |archive-date=21 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621001702/https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/aim_html/chap7_section_1.html |url-status=live }}</ref></blockquote>

===Agricultural meteorology===
Meteorologists, [[soil science|soil scientists]], agricultural hydrologists, and [[agronomy|agronomists]] are people concerned with studying the effects of weather and climate on plant distribution, [[crop yield]], water-use efficiency, [[phenology]] of plant and animal development, and the energy balance of managed and natural ecosystems. Conversely, they are interested in the role of vegetation on climate and weather.<ref>[http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/503295/description?navopenmenu=-2 Agricultural and Forest Meteorology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606150648/http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/503295/description?navopenmenu=-2 |date=6 June 2011 }}, Elsevier, {{ISSN|0168-1923}}.</ref>

===Hydrometeorology===
[[Hydrometeorology]] is the branch of meteorology that deals with the [[hydrologic cycle]], the water budget, and the rainfall statistics of [[storm]]s.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9041744/hydrometeorology Encyclopædia Britannica] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619184302/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9041744/hydrometeorology |date=19 June 2008 }}, 2007.</ref> A hydrometeorologist prepares and issues forecasts of accumulating (quantitative) precipitation, heavy rain, heavy snow, and highlights areas with the potential for flash flooding. Typically the range of knowledge that is required overlaps with climatology, mesoscale and synoptic meteorology, and other geosciences.<ref>[http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/html/about2.shtml About the HPC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230820081224/https://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/html/about2.shtml |date=20 August 2023 }}, NOAA/ National Weather Service, National Centers for Environmental Prediction, [http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/ Hydrometeorological Prediction Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210520213103/http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/ |date=20 May 2021 }}, Camp Springs, Maryland, 2007.</ref>

The multidisciplinary nature of the branch can result in technical challenges, since tools and solutions from each of the individual disciplines involved may behave slightly differently, be optimized for different hard- and software platforms and use different data formats. There are some initiatives – such as the DRIHM project<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.drihm.eu/|title=Home|access-date=16 June 2015|archive-date=6 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150806054006/http://www.drihm.eu/|url-status=dead}}</ref> – that are trying to address this issue.<ref>[http://www.drihm.eu/images/newsletter/newsletter%20drihm%2001.pdf DRIHM News, number 1, March 2012, p2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904002931/http://www.drihm.eu/images/newsletter/newsletter%20drihm%2001.pdf |date=4 September 2015 }} "An ideal environment for hydro-meteorology research at the European level"</ref>

===Nuclear meteorology===
Nuclear meteorology investigates the distribution of [[radioactive]] [[aerosol]]s and [[gas]]es in the atmosphere.<ref>{{cite journal
|title=Modern research in nuclear meteorology
|date=February 1974
|journal=Atomic Energy
|volume=36
|issue=2
|pages=197–198
|doi=10.1007/BF01117823|last1=Tsitskishvili
|first1=M. S.
|last2=Trusov
|first2=A. G.
|s2cid=96128061
}}</ref>

===Maritime meteorology===
Maritime meteorology deals with air and wave forecasts for ships operating at sea. Organizations such as the [[Ocean Prediction Center]], Honolulu [[National Weather Service]] forecast office, United Kingdom [[Met Office]], [[Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute|KNMI]] and [[Japan Meteorological Agency|JMA]] prepare high seas forecasts for the world's oceans.

===Military meteorology===
{{Main|Military meteorology}}

Military meteorology is the research and application of meteorology for [[military]] purposes. In the United States, the [[United States Navy]]'s [[Commander, Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command]] oversees meteorological efforts for the Navy and [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]] while the [[United States Air Force]]'s [[Air Force Weather Agency]] is responsible for the Air Force and [[United States Army|Army]].

===Environmental meteorology===
Environmental meteorology mainly analyzes industrial pollution dispersion physically and chemically based on meteorological parameters such as temperature, humidity, wind, and various weather conditions.

===Renewable energy===
Meteorology applications in renewable energy includes basic research, "exploration," and potential mapping of wind power and solar radiation for wind and solar energy.