Editing Jewish philosophy (section)

== Medieval Jewish philosophy after Maimonides ==
Maimonides writings almost immediately came under attack from Karaites, Dominican Christians, [[Tosafot|Tosafists]] of Provence, [[Ashkenaz]] and [[Al Andalus]]. Scholars suggest that Maimonides instigated the [[Maimonidean Controversy]] when he verbally attacked [[Samuel ben Ali]] ("Gaon of Baghdad") as "one whom people accustom from his youth to believe that there is none like him in his generation," and he sharply attacked the "monetary demands" of the academies. Samuel ben Ali was an anti-Maimonidean operating in Babylon to undermine the works of Maimonides and those of Maimonides' patrons (the [[Al-Constantini]] family from North Africa). To illustrate the reach of the Maimonidean Controversy, Samuel ben Ali, the chief opponent of Maimonides in the East, was excommunicated by Daud Ibn Hodaya al Daudi (Exilarch of Mosul). Maimonides' attacks on Samuel ben Ali may not have been entirely altruistic given the position of Maimonides' in-laws in competing Yeshivas.

In Western Europe, the controversy was halted by the burning of Maimonides' works by Christian Dominicans in 1232. [[Avraham son of Rambam]], continued fighting for his father's beliefs in the East; desecration of Maimonides' tomb, at [[Tiberias]] by Jews, was a profound shock to Jews throughout the Diaspora and caused all to pause and reflect upon what was being done to the fabric of Jewish culture. This compelled many anti-Maimonideans to recant their assertions and realize what cooperation with Christians meant to them, their texts and their communities.

Maimonidean controversy flared up again<ref>Stroumsa, S. (1993) 'On the Maimonidean Controversy in the East: the Role of Abu 'l-Barakat al-Baghdadi', in H. Ben-Shammai (ed.) Hebrew and Arabic Studies in Honour of Joshua Blau, Tel Aviv and Jerusalem. (On the role of Abu 'l-Barakat's writings in the resurrection controversy of the twelfth century; in Hebrew.)</ref> at the beginning of the fourteenth century when Rabbi [[Shlomo ben Aderet]], under influence from [[Asher ben Jehiel]], issued a [[Herem (censure)|cherem]] on "any member of the community who, being under twenty-five years, shall study the works of the Greeks on natural science and metaphysics."

Contemporary Kabbalists, Tosafists and Rationalists continue to engage in lively, sometimes caustic, debate in support of their positions and influence in the Jewish world. At the center of many of these debates are "Guide for the Perplexed", "13 Principles of Faith", "Mishnah Torah", and his commentary on [[Anusim]].

[[File:Ceuta (neutral).PNG|thumb|120px|left|[[Ceuta|Ceuta, North African Spain]]]]

=== Yosef ben Yehuda of Ceuta ===
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}}[[Joseph ben Judah of Ceuta]] was the son of Rabbi Yehuda Ha-Kohen Ibn Soussan and a student of Maimonides for whom the ''Guide for the Perplexed'' is written. Yosef traveled from [[Alexandria]] to [[Fustat]] to study logic, mathematics, and astronomy under Maimonides. Philosophically, Yosef's dissertation, in Arabic, on the problem of "Creation" is suspected to have been written before contact with Maimonides. It is entitled ''Ma'amar bimehuyav ha-metsiut ve'eykhut sidur ha-devarim mimenu vehidush ha'olam'' ("A Treatise as to (1) Necessary Existence (2) The Procedure of Things from the Necessary Existence and (3) The Creation of the World").

=== Jacob Anatoli ===
[[Jacob Anatoli]] is generally regarded as a pioneer in the application of the Maimonidean Rationalism to the study of Jewish texts. He was the son-in-law of [[Samuel ibn Tibbon]], translator of Maimonides. Due to these family ties Anatoli was introduced to the philosophy of Maimonides, the study of which was such a great revelation to him that he, in later days, referred to it as the beginning of his intelligent and true comprehension of the Scriptures, while he frequently alluded to Ibn Tibbon as one of the two masters who had instructed and inspired him. Anatoli wrote the ''Malmad'' exhibiting his broad knowledge of classic Jewish exegetes, as well as Plato, Aristotle, Averroes, and the Vulgate, as well as with a large number of Christian institutions, some of which he ventures to criticize, such as celibacy and monastic castigation, as well as certain heretics and he repeatedly appeals to his readers for a broader cultivation of the classic languages and the non-Jewish branches of learning. To Anatoli, all men are formed in the image of God, although the Jews stand under a particular obligation to further the true cognition of God simply by reason of their election, "the Greeks had chosen wisdom as their pursuit; the Romans, power; and the Jews, religiousness"

=== Hillel ben Samuel ===
Firstly, [[Hillel ben Samuel]]'s importance in the history of medieval Jewish philosophy lies in his attempt to deal, systematically, with the question of the immortality of the soul. Secondly, Hillel played a major role in the controversies of 1289–90 concerning the philosophical works of Maimonides. Thirdly, Hillel was the first devotee of Jewish learning and Philosophy in Italy, bringing a close to a period of relative ignorance of Hakira in Verona (Italy). And finally, Hillel is one of the early Latin translators of "the wise men of the nations" (non-Jewish scholars).

Defending Maimonides, Hillel addressed a letter to his friend Maestro Gaio asking him to use his influence with the Jews of Rome against Maimonides' opponents (Solomon Petit). He also advanced the bold idea of gathering together Maimonides' defenders and opponents in Alexandria, in order to bring the controversy before a court of Babylonian rabbis, whose decision would be binding on both factions. Hillel was certain the verdict would favor Maimonides.

Hillel wrote a commentary on the 25 propositions appearing at the beginning of the second part of the Guide of the Perplexed, and three philosophical treatises, which were appended to Tagmulei ha-Nefesh: the first on knowledge and free will; the second on the question of why mortality resulted from the sin of Adam; the third on whether or not the belief in the fallen angels is a true belief.

=== Shemtob Ben Joseph Ibn Falaquera ===
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[[Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera]] was a Spanish-born philosopher who pursued reconciliation between Jewish dogma and philosophy.  Scholars speculate he was a student of Rabbi [[David Kimhi]] whose family fled Spain to Narbonne.<ref>The encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences ..., Volume 13 edited by Hugh Chisholm, Pg 174</ref> Ibn Falaquera lived an ascetic live of solitude.<ref>A short biographical article about Rabeinu Shem Tov Ben Yosef Falaquera, one of the great Rishonim who was a defender of the Rambam, and the author of the Moreh HaMoreh on the Rambam's Moreh Nevuchim. Published in the Jewish Quarterly Review journal (Vol .1 1910/1911).</ref> Ibn Falaquera's two leading philosophic authorities were Averroes and Maimonides. Ibn Falaquera defended the ''"Guide for the Perplexed"'' against attacks of anti-Maimonideans.<ref>Torah and Sophia: The Life and Thought of Shem Tov Ibn Falaquera (Monographs of the Hebrew Union College) by Raphael Jospe</ref> He knew the works of the Islamic philosophers better than any Jewish scholar of his time, and made many of them available to other Jewish scholars – often without attribution (''Reshit Hokhmah''). Ibn Falaquera did not hesitate to modify Islamic philosophic texts when it suited his purposes. For example, Ibn Falaquera turned Alfarabi's account of the origin of philosophic religion into a discussion of the origin of the "virtuous city". Ibn Falaquera's other works include, but are not limited to Iggeret Hanhagat ha-Guf we ha-Nefesh, a treatise in verse on the control of the body and the soul.

* ''Iggeret ha-Wikkuaḥ'', a dialogue between a religious Jew and a Jewish philosopher on the harmony of philosophy and religion.
* ''Reshit Ḥokmah'', treating of moral duties, of the sciences, and of the necessity of studying philosophy.
* ''Sefer ha-Ma'alot'', on different degrees of human perfection.
* ''Moreh ha-Moreh'', commentary on the philosophical part of Maimonides' "Guide for the Perplexed".

=== Joseph ben Abba Mari ibn Kaspi ===
[[Joseph Caspi|Ibn Kaspi]] was a fierce advocate of Maimonides to such an extent that he left for Egypt in 1314 in order to hear explanations on the Guide of the Perplexed from Maimonides' grandchildren. When he heard that the Guide of the Perplexed was being studied in the Muslim philosophical schools of Fez, he left for that town (in 1332) in order to observe their method of study.

Ibn Kaspi began writing when he was 17 years old on topics which included logic, linguistics, ethics, theology, biblical exegesis, and super-commentaries to Abraham Ibn Ezra and Maimonides. Philosophic systems he followed were Aristotle's and Averroes'. He defines his aim as "not to be a fool who believes in everything, but only in that which can be verified by proof...and not to be of the second unthinking category which disbelieves from the start of its inquiry," since "certain things must be accepted by tradition, because they cannot be proven." Scholars continue to debate whether ibn Kaspi was a heretic or one of Judaisms most illustrious scholars.<ref> {{Citation |title=Jewish Virtual Library |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/kaspi-joseph-ben-abba-mari-ibn}} </ref>

=== Gersonides ===
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Rabbi [[Gersonides|Levi ben Gershon]] was a student of his father [[Gerson ben Solomon of Arles]], who in turn was a student of [[Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera]].  Gersonides is best known for his work ''Milhamot HaShem'' ("Wars of the Lord").  ''Milhamot HaShem'' is modelled after the "[[Guide for the Perplexed]]".  Gersonides and his father were avid students of the works of [[Alexander of Aphrodisias]], Aristotle, [[Empedocles]], [[Galen]], [[Hippocrates]], [[Homer]], Plato, [[Ptolemy]], [[Pythagoras]], [[Themistius]], [[Theophrastus]], [[Ali ibn Abbas al-Magusi]], [[Ali ibn Ridwan]], Averroes, [[Avicenna]], [[Qusta ibn Luqa]], [[Al-Farabi]], Al-Fergani, Chonain, Isaac Israeli, [[Ibn Tufail]], [[Ibn Zuhr]], Isaac Alfasi, and Maimonides.{{citation needed|date=July 2012}} Gersonides held that God does not have complete foreknowledge of human acts. "Gersonides, bothered by the old question of how God's foreknowledge is compatible with [[human freedom]], suggests that what God knows beforehand is all the choices open to each individual. God does not know, however, which choice the individual, in his freedom, will make."<ref>{{cite book |last= Jacobs |first=Louis |year=1990 |title= God, Torah, Israel: traditionalism without fundamentalism |location=Cincinnati |publisher=Hebrew Union College Press |isbn= 0-87820-052-5 |oclc= 21039224}}</ref>

=== Moses Narboni ===
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}}[[Moses ben Joshua]] composed commentaries on Islamic philosophical works. As an admirer of Averroes, he devoted a great deal of study to his works and wrote commentaries on a number of them. His best-known work is his ''Shelemut ha-Nefesh'' ("Treatise on the Perfection of the Soul"). Moses began studying philosophy with his father when he was thirteen, later studying with Moses ben David Caslari and [[Abraham ben David Caslari]] - both of whom were students of [[Kalonymus ben Kalonymus]]. Moses believed that Judaism was a guide to the highest degree of theoretical and moral truth. He believed that the Torah had both a simple, direct meaning accessible to the average reader as well as a deeper, metaphysical meaning accessible to thinkers. Moses rejected the belief in miracles, instead believing they could be explained, and defended man's free will by philosophical arguments.

=== Isaac ben Sheshet Perfet ===
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[[Isaac ben Sheshet]] Perfet, of Barcelona, studied under [[Hasdai Crescas]] and Rabbi [[Nissim ben Reuben]] Gerondi.  [[Nissim ben Reuben]] Gerondi was a steadfast Rationalist who did not hesitate to refute leading authorities, such as [[Rashi]], [[Rabbeinu Tam]], [[Moses ben Nahman]], and [[Solomon ben Adret]].  The pogroms of 1391, against Jews of Spain, forced Isaac to flee to Algiers - where he lived out his life. Isaac's responsa evidence a profound knowledge of the philosophical writings of his time; in one of Responsa No. 118 he explains the difference between the opinion of ''Gersonides'' and that of ''Abraham ben David of Posquières'' on free will, and gives his own views on the subject. He was an adversary of Kabbalah who never spoke of the Sefirot; he quotes another philosopher when reproaching kabbalists with "''believing in the "Ten" (Sefirot) as the Christians believe in the Trinity''".<ref>Responsa No. 159</ref>

=== Hasdai ben Abraham Crescas ===
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[[Hasdai Crescas]], of Barcelona, was a leading rationalist on issues of natural law and free-will. His views  can be seen as precursors to [[Baruch Spinoza]]'s. His work, ''[[Or Adonai]]'', became a classic refutation of medieval [[Aristotelianism]], and harbinger of the scientific revolution in the 16th century. Hasdai Crescas was a student of [[Nissim ben Reuben]] Gerondi, who in turn was a student of Reuben ben Nissim Gerondi. Crescas was a rabbi and the head of the Jewish community of Aragon, and in some ways of all Hispanic Jewry, during one of its most critical periods.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sadik |first1=Shalom|authorlink=Shalom Sadik|title=Hasdai Crescas |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2020/entries/crescas/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=18 May 2021 |date=2020}}</ref> Among his fellow students and friends, his best friend was [[Isaac ben Sheshet]] Perfet.  Crescas' students won accolades as participants in the [[Disputation of Tortosa]].

=== Simeon ben Zemah Duran ===
Influenced by the teaching of Rabbi [[Nissim of Gerona]], via Ephraim Vidal's Yeshiva in Majorca, Duran's commentary ''Magen Avot'' ("The Shield of the Fathers"), which influenced [[Joseph Albo]], is important.  He was also a student of philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, and especially of medicine, which he practiced for a number of years at Palma, in Majorca. ''Magen Avot'' deals with concepts such as the nature of God, the eternity of the Torah, the coming of the Messiah, and the Resurrection of the dead. Duran believed that Judaism has three dogmas only: the existence of God, the Torah's Divine origin, and Reward and Punishment; in this regard he was followed by Joseph Albo.

=== Joseph Albo ===
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}}[[Joseph Albo]], of Monreal, was a student of [[Hasdai Crescas]].  He wrote ''Sefer ha-Ikkarim'' ("Book of Principles"), a classic work on the fundamentals of Judaism.  Albo narrows the fundamental Jewish principles of faith from thirteen to three -
::::::* belief in the existence of God,
::::::* belief in revelation, and
::::::* belief in divine justice, as related to the idea of immortality.
Albo rejects the assumption that [[creation ex nihilo]] is essential in belief in God. Albo freely criticizes Maimonides' thirteen principles of belief and Crescas' six principles. According to Albo, "belief in the Messiah is only a 'twig' unnecessary to the soundness of the trunk"; not essential to Judaism. Nor is it true, according to Albo, that every law is binding. Although every ordinance has the power of conferring happiness in its observance, it is not true that every law must be observed, or that through the neglect of a part of the law, a Jew would violate the divine covenant or be damned. Contemporary Orthodox Jews, however, vehemently disagree with Albo's position believing that all Jews are divinely obligated to fulfill every applicable commandment.

=== Hoter ben Solomon ===
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[[Hoter ben Shlomo]] was a scholar and philosopher in Yemen heavily influenced by Nethanel ben al-Fayyumi, Maimonides, Saadia Gaon and al-Ghazali. The connection between the "Epistle of the [[Brethren of Purity]]" and Ismailism suggests the adoption of this work as one of the main sources of what would become known as "Jewish Ismailism" as found in Late Medieval Yemenite Judaism. "Jewish Ismailism" consisted of adapting, to Judaism, a few Ismaili doctrines about cosmology, prophecy, and hermeneutics. There are many examples of the [[Brethren of Purity]] influencing [[Yemenite Jew]]ish philosophers and authors in the period 1150–1550.<ref>D. Blumenthal, "An  Illustration of the Concept 'Philosophic Mysticism' from Fifteenth Century Yemen," and "A Philosophical-Mystical Interpretation of a Shi'ur Qomah Text."</ref> Some traces of Brethren of Purity doctrines, as well as of their [[numerology]], are found in two Yemenite philosophical [[midrashim]] written in 1420–1430: ''[[Midrash ha-Hefez|Midrash ha-hefez]]'' ("Midrash of Desire") by [[Zechariah ha-Rofé]] (a.k.a. Yahya al-Tabib) and the ''Siraj al-'uqul'' ("Lamp of Intellects") by Hoter ben Solomon.

=== Don Isaac Abravanel ===
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[[Isaac Abravanel]], statesman, philosopher, Bible commentator, and financier who commented on Maimonides' thirteen principles in his ''Rosh Amanah''. [[Isaac Abravanel]] was steeped in Rationalism by the Ibn Yahya family, who had a residence immediately adjacent to the ''Great Synagogue of Lisbon'' (also built by the Ibn Yahya Family). His most important work, ''Rosh Amanah'' ("The Pinnacle of Faith"), defends Maimonides' thirteen articles of belief against attacks of Hasdai Crescas and Yosef Albo. ''Rosh Amanah'' ends with the statement that "Maimonides compiled these articles merely in accordance with the fashion of other nations, which set up axioms or fundamental principles for their science".

[[Isaac Abravanel]] was born and raised in Lisbon; a student of the Rabbi of Lisbon, ''Yosef ben Shlomo Ibn Yahya''.<ref>"Isaac Abarbanel's stance toward tradition: defense, dissent, and dialogue" By Eric Lawee</ref>  Rabbi Yosef was a poet, religious scholar, rebuilder of ''Ibn Yahya Synagogue of Calatayud'', well versed in rabbinic literature and in the learning of his time, devoting his early years to the study of Jewish philosophy.  The Ibn Yahya family were renowned physicians, philosophers and accomplished aides to the Portuguese Monarchy for centuries.
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Isaac's grandfather, Samuel Abravanel, was forcibly converted to Christianity during the pogroms of 1391 and took the Spanish name "''Juan Sanchez de Sevilla''". Samuel fled Castile-León, Spain, in 1397 for Lisbon, Portugal, and reverted to Judaism - shedding his ''[[Converso]]'' after living among Christians for six years. Conversions outside Judaism, coerced or otherwise, had a strong impact upon young Isaac, later compelling him to forfeit his immense wealth in an attempt to redeem Iberian Jewry from coercion of the [[Alhambra Decree]]. There are parallels between what he writes, and documents produced by Inquisitors, that present [[conversos]] as ambivalent to Christianity and sometimes even ironic in their expressions regarding their new religion - [[crypto-jews]].

=== Leone Ebreo ===
[[Judah Leon Abravanel]] was a Portuguese physician, poet and philosopher. His work ''Dialoghi d'amore'' ("Dialogues of Love"), written in Italian, was one of the most important philosophical works of his time. In an attempt to circumvent a plot hatched by local Catholic Bishops to kidnap his son, Judah sent his son from Castile to Portugal with a nurse, but by order of the king the son was seized and baptized{{cn|date=October 2023}}. This was a devastating insult to Judah and his family, and was a source of bitterness throughout Judah's life and the topic of his writings years later; especially since this was not the first time the Abravanel Family was subjected to such embarrassment at the hands of the Catholic Church.

Judah's ''Dialoghi'' is regarded as the finest of Humanistic Period works. His neoplatonism is derived from the Hispanic Jewish community, especially the works of [[Ibn Gabirol]]. Platonic notions of reaching towards a nearly impossible ideal of beauty, wisdom, and perfection encompass the whole of his work. In ''Dialoghi d'amore'', Judah defines love in philosophical terms. He structures his three dialogues as a conversation between two abstract "characters": Philo, representing love or appetite, and Sophia, representing science or wisdom, Philo+Sophia (philosophia).

=== Criticisms of Kabbalah ===
The word "Kabbalah" was used in medieval Jewish texts to mean "tradition", see [[Abraham Ibn Daud]]'s ''Sefer Ha-Qabbalah'' also known as the "Book of our Tradition". "Book of our Tradition" does not refer to mysticism of any kind - it chronicles "our tradition of scholarship and study" in two Babylonian Academies, through the Geonim, into Talmudic Yeshivas of Spain. In Talmudic times there was a mystic tradition in Judaism, known as ''Maaseh Bereshith'' (the work of creation) and ''Maaseh Merkavah'' (the work of the chariot); Maimonides interprets these texts as referring to Aristotelian physics and metaphysics as interpreted in the light of Torah.

In the 13th century, however, a mystical-esoteric system emerged which became known as "the [[Kabbalah]]".  Many of the beliefs associated with Kabbalah had long been rejected by philosophers. [[Saadia Gaon]] had taught in his book ''Emunot v'Deot'' that Jews who believe in ''[[gilgul]]'' have adopted a non-Jewish belief. [[Maimonides]] rejected many texts of ''[[Heichalot]]'', particularly ''[[Shi'ur Qomah]]'' whose anthropomorphic vision of God he considered heretical.

In the 13th century, Meir ben Simon of Narbonne wrote an epistle (included in ''Milhhemet Mitzvah'') against early Kabbalists, singled out ''[[Sefer Bahir]]'', rejecting the attribution of its authorship to the tanna R. Nehhunya ben ha-Kanah and describing some of its content:

{{blockquote|... And we have heard that a book had already been written for them, which they call  Bahir, that is 'bright' but no light shines through it. This book has come into our hands and we have found that they falsely attribute it to Rabbi Nehunya ben Haqqanah. haShem forbid! There is no truth in this... The language of the book and its whole content show that it is the work of someone who lacked command of either literary language or good style, and in many passages it contains words which are out and out heresy.}}

=== Other notable Jewish philosophers post-Maimonides ===
* [[Jedaiah ben Abraham Bedersi]]
* [[Nissim of Gerona]]
* [[Jacob ben Machir ibn Tibbon]]
* [[Isaac Nathan ben Kalonymus]]
* [[Judah Messer Leon]]
* [[David ben Judah Messer Leon]]
* [[Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno]]
* [[Judah Moscato]]
* [[Azariah dei Rossi]]
* [[Isaac Aboab I]]
* [[Isaac Campanton]] a.k.a. "the gaon of Castile"
* [[Isaac ben Moses Arama]]
* [[Profiat Duran]] a [[Converso]], Duran wrote ''Be Not Like Your Fathers''