Editing Ivy League (section)

==== Late 20th century ====

By the middle of the 20th century, some Ivy League students and alumni were advocating for increased racial integration efforts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Editorial |date=September 30, 1942 |title=White Supremacy at Princeton |url=https://theprince.princeton.edu/princetonperiodicals/cgi-bin/imageserver.pl?oid=Princetonian19420930-01&getpdf=true |journal=[[The Daily Princetonian]] |volume=LXVII |issue=84 |pages=1–2 |access-date=July 3, 2023 |archive-date=July 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703035238/https://theprince.princeton.edu/princetonperiodicals/cgi-bin/imageserver.pl?oid=Princetonian19420930-01&getpdf=true |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=William H. |first=Greider |date=October 25, 1956 |title=Students Push to Have More Negroes Admitted |url=https://theprince.princeton.edu/princetonperiodicals/cgi-bin/imageserver.pl?oid=Princetonian19561025-01&getpdf=true |journal=The Daily Princetonian |volume=LXXX |issue=107 |pages=1, 3–4 |quote=The fact that Princeton, a liberal university of 2800 undergraduates, has but two Negro students...is a point of concern for a small group of undergraduates, the members of the Westminster Fellowship of the Presbyterian Church. |access-date=July 2, 2023 |archive-date=July 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702224905/https://theprince.princeton.edu/princetonperiodicals/cgi-bin/imageserver.pl?oid=Princetonian19561025-01&getpdf=true |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=April 21, 1950 |title=JRC Probes Negro Admission Policy |url=https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1950/4/21/jrc-probes-negro-admission-policy-pbecause/ |access-date=2023-07-02 |website=The Harvard Crimson |archive-date=July 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702224854/https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1950/4/21/jrc-probes-negro-admission-policy-pbecause/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=December 1, 1948 |title=Racial Equality Group Started |url=https://spectatorarchive.library.columbia.edu/?a=is&oid=cs19481201-01&type=staticpdf&pdfaccesscode=PdkGcxuwzf9DRwVwstREzK0NHk5KXviu6wibCYmK/91oI=&submitted=1&e=------194-en-20--1--txt-txIN-segregation------&g-recaptcha-response=03AAYGu2R2ZxGGw39CrWMYwcFnzYqwKtaA7QaOkCsSDlEG4roLgeIRI_i49dt2PeLA3wOzSz0r2hgrDpjxFmvYv5bfVCNxFyZOsUsz-kzXzkHhGx0ZH5T2-6Dj_if5cGFFOYiWFrZbp0VGzwyWiSMedFc7n-s27W9JFXE9Fpw6z5Xx9eVv8auSdwry4pReCBq-wEgv-6aFpgIpLNJVEaCwK6UcaoiMnbTxvJQTyYPoF7rySd4OiXRJAjlXUR90adz6yXFryhmB9EDX-vgpe-4qrVp35BxQVKes0hOFBdl8cc4vVCkrjnbnNHMioe1lVSF4DNOFwej6Zlx8PZSE1B7h5fqPncPdrcWJ9E7D4t0eGKaWpXVrjITQFn4WxxqHiaZwcLh8KAknKeiitheKCfP1V81cH7yo7TAqPWYJ2nqYaLtqNtQD_T02KYldQntMPDQpOLQmhfQyVyXJ3GY26-NtuY-Ya7Km4rRMsOxGGMPvDFjCaP788oecQiDQCPTjoVvYOTuXsgNHqA9XdyDzPMSeMo-c71_TV3ohQMM5GESPmozcdAaP-um2vbJY9qF_0gNW1sgP1ilm-4G03OpvrRt-6uC3LNsu6bGSgVBapQZK-MufVRTXY5asDlI |access-date=2023-07-03 |website=Columbia Spectator |archive-date=July 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703051901/https://spectatorarchive.library.columbia.edu/?a=is&oid=cs19481201-01&type=staticpdf&pdfaccesscode=PdkGcxuwzf9DRwVwstREzK0NHk5KXviu6wibCYmK/91oI=&submitted=1&e=------194-en-20--1--txt-txIN-segregation------&g-recaptcha-response=03AAYGu2R2ZxGGw39CrWMYwcFnzYqwKtaA7QaOkCsSDlEG4roLgeIRI_i49dt2PeLA3wOzSz0r2hgrDpjxFmvYv5bfVCNxFyZOsUsz-kzXzkHhGx0ZH5T2-6Dj_if5cGFFOYiWFrZbp0VGzwyWiSMedFc7n-s27W9JFXE9Fpw6z5Xx9eVv8auSdwry4pReCBq-wEgv-6aFpgIpLNJVEaCwK6UcaoiMnbTxvJQTyYPoF7rySd4OiXRJAjlXUR90adz6yXFryhmB9EDX-vgpe-4qrVp35BxQVKes0hOFBdl8cc4vVCkrjnbnNHMioe1lVSF4DNOFwej6Zlx8PZSE1B7h5fqPncPdrcWJ9E7D4t0eGKaWpXVrjITQFn4WxxqHiaZwcLh8KAknKeiitheKCfP1V81cH7yo7TAqPWYJ2nqYaLtqNtQD_T02KYldQntMPDQpOLQmhfQyVyXJ3GY26-NtuY-Ya7Km4rRMsOxGGMPvDFjCaP788oecQiDQCPTjoVvYOTuXsgNHqA9XdyDzPMSeMo-c71_TV3ohQMM5GESPmozcdAaP-um2vbJY9qF_0gNW1sgP1ilm-4G03OpvrRt-6uC3LNsu6bGSgVBapQZK-MufVRTXY5asDlI |url-status=live }}</ref> These efforts were met with mixed reactions from the schools themselves.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=March 24, 1955 |title=Applications for Class of '59 Soar to Record 3,400 Total |url=https://theprince.princeton.edu/princetonperiodicals/cgi-bin/imageserver.pl?oid=Princetonian19550324-01&getpdf=true |journal=[[The Daily Princetonian]] |volume=LXXIX |issue=39 |pages=1 |quote=Questioned on the Admission's Office reaction to Yale University's decision to encourage more Negro applicants, [director of admissions C. William] Edwards commented that Princeton 'is neither discouraging nor encouraging Negro students to come here.' |access-date=July 2, 2023 |archive-date=July 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702224902/https://theprince.princeton.edu/princetonperiodicals/cgi-bin/imageserver.pl?oid=Princetonian19550324-01&getpdf=true |url-status=dead }}</ref> Without a goal for integration shared by the institutions as a collective, each school increased racial diversity at different rates, with Dartmouth having 120 Black undergraduates in the class of 1945 and Princeton having a cumulative total of fewer than 100 Black undergraduates by 1967.<ref name="Bradley-2021" />

The [[V-12 Navy College Training Program]] in 1942 effectively forced all eight Ivy institutions to increase Black student enrollment.<ref name="Bradley-2021"/> At Princeton University, the Black students in this program were the first ever granted bachelor's degrees by the University.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Armstrong |first=April |date=2015-05-27 |title=African Americans and Princeton University |url=https://blogs.princeton.edu/mudd/2015/05/african-americans-and-princeton-university/ |access-date=2022-12-13 |website=Mudd Manuscript Library Blog |language=en-US |archive-date=November 28, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128023849/https://blogs.princeton.edu/mudd/2015/05/african-americans-and-princeton-university/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The 1954 Supreme Court decision in ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' did not require private universities like those in the Ivy League to abide by the ruling.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-09-29 |title=Brown v. Board of Education (1954) |url=https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/brown-v-board-of-education |access-date=2022-12-15 |website=National Archives |language=en |archive-date=December 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215193011/https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/brown-v-board-of-education |url-status=live }}</ref> It wasn't until the Court's 1976 decision in ''[[Runyon v. McCrary]]'' that private institutions became legally prohibited from discriminating on the basis of race.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Runyon v. McCrary, 427 U.S. 160 (1976) |url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/427/160/ |access-date=2022-12-07 |website=Justia Law |language=en |archive-date=November 29, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129052121/https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/427/160/ |url-status=live }}</ref> By the early 1960s, however, some admissions offices in the Ivy League began to make concerted efforts to increase their number of Black applicants, rolling out initiatives that actively sought Black talent from high schools.<ref name="The Current">{{Cite web |title=Breaking Through a Bastion of Whiteness |url=http://www.columbia-current.org/breaking-through-a-bastion-of-whiteness.html |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Current |language=en |archive-date=December 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212122946/http://www.columbia-current.org/breaking-through-a-bastion-of-whiteness.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Efforts for racial integration at Ivy League institutions relied on the support of student organizations, faculty-led initiatives, and third-party organizations like the National Scholarship Service and Fund for Negro Students<ref name=":0" /> to seek prospective Black applicants.<ref name="The Current" /> These efforts also prompted internal University action, such as the creation of [[History of Cornell University|Cornell's Committee on Special Educational Projects (COSEP)]], an organization aimed to recruit and support Black students.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our History {{!}} Office of Academic Diversity Initiatives |url=https://oadi.cornell.edu/about/our-history |access-date=2022-12-07 |website=oadi.cornell.edu |archive-date=December 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207190949/https://oadi.cornell.edu/about/our-history |url-status=live }}</ref> By 1965, however, Black students still were only 2% of admitted students across all the Ivies.<ref name="Bradley-2021" />

Prior to the 1960s, the majority of Ivy League universities explicitly prohibited the admission of women, instead forming partnerships with nearby women's colleges.<ref name="BestColleges">{{Cite web |title=A History of Women in Higher Education |url=https://www.bestcolleges.com/news/analysis/2021/03/21/history-women-higher-education/ |access-date=2022-12-12 |website=BestColleges |language=en-US |archive-date=June 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606135024/https://www.bestcolleges.com/news/analysis/2021/03/21/history-women-higher-education/ |url-status=live }}</ref> As such, Black women were not able to attend Ivy League universities until they changed their policies. [[Lillian Lincoln|Lillian Lincoln Lambert]] was the first Black woman to receive a degree from Harvard University after graduating with a master's degree from [[Harvard Business School]] in 1969.<ref name="BestColleges" /> Lincoln Lambert was also a founding member of Harvard's African American Student Union, which according to her, actively recruited Black students and created "a space where Black students could find not only support but resources for everything from barber shops that cut Black hair to churches."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Entrepreneur Lillian Lambert on Being the First Black Woman to Graduate from Harvard Business School |url=https://www.sarasotamagazine.com/news-and-profiles/2022/05/lillian-lincoln-lambert-harvard |access-date=2022-12-12 |website=Sarasota Magazine |language=en-US |archive-date=December 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212195244/https://www.sarasotamagazine.com/news-and-profiles/2022/05/lillian-lincoln-lambert-harvard |url-status=live }}</ref>

As Black student populations grew at Ivy League schools, on-campus activism saw an increase during the civil rights movement. In 1969, students in Cornell's Afro-American Society led an armed occupation of [[Willard Straight Hall]] to protest the university's racist policies and “its slow progress in establishing a Black studies program.”<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kendi |first=Ibram |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/795517755 |title=The Black campus movement : Black students and the racial reconstitution of higher education, 1965-1972 |date=2012 |isbn=978-1-137-01650-8 |edition=First |location=New York |oclc=795517755}}</ref><ref name="Bradley-2021" /> In the same year, students associated with Yale's New Left organization, [[Students for a Democratic Society]], worked closely with the New Haven [[Black Panther Party|Black Panthers]] to lead sit-ins and protests that advocated for the admission of more students of color and the establishment of an African American studies department.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Vaz |first1=Megan |date=2022-02-18 |title=Memories of May Day: A look back at Black Panther protests at Yale |url=https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2022/02/18/memories-of-may-day-a-look-back-at-black-panther-protests-at-yale/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=Yale Daily News |language=en |archive-date=December 4, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204195338/https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2022/02/18/memories-of-may-day-a-look-back-at-black-panther-protests-at-yale/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Bradley-2021" /> At Brown University, identity-based student organizations such as the United African People and the African American Society called for an increase to the number of Black faculty and increased attention to the needs of Black students.<ref name="Brown's Slavery & Justice Report, Digital 2nd Edition | Brown University" /> Demonstrations at Harvard and Columbia took the form of occupations and non-violent sit-ins that were often subject to forceful removal by local police called by University administrators.<ref>{{cite web |title=Harvard Students Occupy University Hall |url=https://www.massmoments.org/moment-details/harvard-students-occupy-university-hall.html |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=www.massmoments.org |date=April 11, 2006 |language=en |archive-date=December 4, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204195335/https://www.massmoments.org/moment-details/harvard-students-occupy-university-hall.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Bradley-2021" /> Activism at Dartmouth took a different shape during this time period, as students would use demonstrations that were happening at other Ivies and colleges around the country, to effectively position their demands for progress within the prospect of taking actions similar to those happening elsewhere.