Editing Islamic art (section)

===Medieval period (9th–15th centuries)===
Beginning in the ninth century, Abbasid sovereignty was contested in the provinces furthest removed from the Iraqi center. The creation of an [[Ismailism|Ismaʻili Shiʻi]] dynasty, that of the [[North Africa]]n [[Fatimid Caliphate]], followed by the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]] in the [[Iberian Peninsula]], gave force to this opposition, as well as small dynasties and autonomous governors in [[Iran]].

====Spain and the Maghreb====
[[File:Morocco Fez Embroidery Horse Cover.JPG|thumb|Moroccan [[Islamic embroidery|Embroidery]] [[fly mask]]]]
[[File:Pyxid Al Mughira OA 4068.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pyxis of al-Mughira]], [[Medina Azahara]], Spain, 968]]

The first Islamic dynasty to establish itself in Iberia, known in Arabic as [[al-Andalus]], was the Umayyads, descended from the great Umayyad Caliphate of Syria. After their fall, they were replaced by various autonomous kingdoms, the [[taifa]]s (1031–91), but the artistic production from this period does not differ significantly from that of the Umayyads. At the end of the 11th century, two Berber tribes, the [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]] and the [[Almohad dynasty|Almohads]], captured the head of the Maghreb and Spain, successively, bringing Maghrebi influences into art. A series of military victories by Christian monarchs had reduced Islamic Spain by the end of the 14th century to the city of [[Granada]], ruled by the [[Nasrid dynasty]], who managed to maintain their hold until 1492.

Al-Andalus was a great cultural center of the Middle Ages. Besides the great universities, which taught philosophies and sciences yet unknown in Christendom (such as those of [[Averroes]]), the territory was an equally vital center for art.

Many techniques were employed in the manufacture of objects. Ivory was used extensively for the manufacture of boxes and caskets. The [[pyxis of al-Mughira]] is a masterwork of the genre. In metalwork, large sculptures in the round, normally rather scarce in the Islamic world, served as elaborate receptacles for water or as fountain spouts. A great number of textiles, most notably silks, were exported: many are found in the church treasuries of Christendom, where they served as covering for saints' [[reliquaries]]. From the periods of [[Maghreb]]i rule one may also note a taste for painted and sculpted woodwork.

The art of north Africa is not as well studied. The Almoravid and Almohad dynasties are characterized by a tendency toward austerity, for example in mosques with bare walls. Nevertheless, luxury arts continued to be produced in great quantity. The Marinid and Hafsid dynasties developed an important, but poorly understood, architecture, and a significant amount of painted and sculpted woodwork.

====Arab Mashriq====
The Fatimid Caliphate, which reigned in Egypt from 909 and 1171, introduced crafts and knowledge from politically troubled Baghdad to their capital of [[Cairo]].

By 1070, the [[Seljuq Empire]] emerged as the dominant political force in the Muslim world after they liberated Baghdad and defeated the Byzantines at [[Manzikert]]. During the rule of [[Malik-Shah I]], the Seljuks excelled in architecture at the same time in Syria, the [[atabeg]]s (governors of Seljuk princes) assumed power. Quite independent, they capitalized on conflicts with the Frankish [[Crusades|crusaders]]. In 1171, [[Saladin]] seized Fatimid Egypt, and installed the transitory [[Ayyubid dynasty]] on the throne. This period is notable for innovations in metallurgy and the widespread manufacture of the Damascus steel swords and daggers and the production ceramics, glass and metalwork of a high quality were produced without interruption, and enamelled glass became another important craft.

In 1250, [[Mamluk]]s seized control of Egypt from the Ayyubids as the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]], and by 1261 had managed to assert themselves in Syria as well their most famous ruler was [[Baibars]]. The Mamluks were not, strictly speaking, a dynasty, as they did not maintain a patrilineal mode of succession; in fact, Mamluks were freed Turkish and Caucasian slaves, who (in theory) passed the power to others of like station. This mode of government persevered for three centuries, until 1517, and gave rise to abundant architectural projects; many thousands of buildings were constructed during this period. Patronage of luxury arts favored primarily enamelled glass and metalwork and is remembered as the golden age of medieval Egypt. The [[Baptistère de Saint Louis]] in the [[Louvre]] is an example of the very high quality of metalwork at this period.

====Iran and Central Asia====
[[File:SamarkandBibiKhanym.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Bibi-Khanym Mosque]], [[Samarkand]], [[Uzbekistan]], built by [[Timur]] in 1399]]

Iran and the north of India, the [[Tahirid dynasty|Tahirids]], [[Samanid]]s, [[Ghaznavids]], and [[Ghurids]] struggled for power in the 10th century, and art was a vital element of this competition. Great cities were built, such as [[Neyshabur|Nishapur]] and [[Ghazni]], and the construction of the Great Mosque of [[Isfahan]] (which would continue, in fits and starts, over several centuries) was initiated. Funerary architecture was also cultivated, while potters developed quite individual styles: kaleidoscopic ornament on a yellow ground; or marbled decorations created by allowing colored glazes to run; or painting with multiple layers of slip under the glaze.

The [[Seljuq dynasty|Seljuqs]], nomads of Turkic origin from present-day Mongolia, appeared on the stage of Islamic history toward the end of the 10th century. They seized Baghdad in 1048, before dying out in 1194 in Iran, although the production of "Seljuq" works continued through the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th century under the auspices of smaller, independent sovereigns and patrons. During their time, the center of culture, politics and art production shifted from [[Damascus]] and [[Baghdad]] to [[Merv]], [[Nishapur]], [[Rey, Iran|Rayy]], and [[Isfahan]], all in Iran.<ref>Hillenbrand (1999), p.89</ref>
[[File:Ceramic bowl decorated with slip beneath a transparent glaze and designed by anthropic figure with bull head Golestan, Gorgan 9th century CE, Early Islamic period.jpg|thumb|Ceramic bowl decorated with slip beneath a transparent glaze, Gorgan, 9th century CE, Early Islamic period, National Museum of Iran]]
Popular patronage expanded because of a growing economy and new urban wealth. Inscriptions in architecture tended to focus more on the patrons of the piece. For example, sultans, viziers or lower ranking officials would receive often mention in inscriptions on mosques.  Meanwhile, growth in mass market production and sale of art made it more commonplace and accessible to merchants and professionals.<ref>Hillenbrand (1999), p.91</ref> Because of increased production, many relics have survived from the Seljuk era and can be easily dated. In contrast, the dating of earlier works is more ambiguous. It is, therefore, easy to mistake Seljuk art as new developments rather than inheritance from classical Iranian and Turkic sources.<ref>Hillenbrand (1999), Chapter 4</ref>

Innovations in ceramics from this period include the production of minai ware and the manufacture of vessels, not out of clay, but out of a [[silicon]] paste ("[[fritware]]"), while metalworkers began to encrust bronze with precious metals. Across the Seljuk era, from Iran to Iraq, a unification of book painting can be seen. These paintings have animalistic figures that convey strong symbolic meaning of fidelity, treachery, and courage.<ref>Hillenbrand, p.100</ref>

During the 13th century, the [[Mongols]] under the leadership of [[Genghis Khan]] swept through the Islamic world. After his death, his empire was divided among his sons, forming many dynasties: the [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] in China, the [[Ilkhanate|Ilkhanids]] in Iran and the [[Golden Horde]] in northern Iran and southern Russia.

=====Ilkhanids=====
A rich civilization developed under these "little khans", who were originally subservient to the Yuan emperor, but rapidly became independent. Architectural activity intensified as the Mongols became sedentary, and retained traces of their nomadic origins, such as the north–south orientation of the buildings. At the same time a process of "iranisation" took place, and construction according to previously established types, such as the "Iranian plan" mosques, was resumed. The [[Persian miniature|art of the Persian book]] was also born under this dynasty, and was encouraged by aristocratic patronage of large manuscripts such as the ''[[Jami' al-tawarikh]]'' by [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani]]. New techniques in ceramics appeared, such as the lajvardina (a variation on luster-ware), and Chinese influence is perceptible in all arts.

=====The Golden Horde and the Timurids=====
The early arts of the nomads of the Golden Horde are poorly understood. Research is only beginning, and evidence for town planning and architecture has been discovered. There was also a significant production of works in gold, which often show a strong Chinese influence. Much of this work is preserved today in the [[Hermitage Museum|Hermitage]].

The beginning of the third great period of medieval Iranian art, that of the [[Timurid dynasty|Timurids]], was marked by the invasion of a third group of nomads, under the direction of [[Timur]]. During the 15th century this dynasty gave rise to a golden age in Persian manuscript painting, including renowned painters such as [[Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād]], but also a multitude of workshops and patrons.

====Syria, Iraq, Anatolia====
[[File:Erzurum Cifte Minareli Sunrise.JPG|thumb|[[Çifte Minareli Medrese (Erzurum)|Çifte Minareli Medrese]] in Erzurum. Before 1265]]
The Seljuq Turks pushed beyond Iran into Anatolia, winning a victory over the [[Byzantine Empire]] in the [[Battle of Manzikert]] (1071), and setting up a sultanate independent of the Iranian branch of the dynasty. Their power seems largely to have waned following the Mongol invasions in 1243, but coins were struck under their name until 1304. Architecture and objects synthesized various styles, both Iranian and Syrian, sometimes rendering precise attributions difficult. The art of woodworking was cultivated, and at least one illustrated manuscript dates to this period.

[[Caravanserai]]s dotted the major trade routes across the region, placed at intervals of a day's travel. The construction of these caravanserai [[inns]] improved in scale, fortification, and replicability. Also, they began to contain central mosques.

The [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]] were nomads who settled in the area of [[Lake Van]]. They were responsible for a number of mosques, such as the [[The Blue Mosque of Tabriz|Blue Mosque]] in [[Tabriz]], and they had a decisive influence after the fall of the Anatolian Seljuqs. Starting in the 13th century, Anatolia was dominated by small Turkmen dynasties, which progressively chipped away at Byzantine territory. Little by little a major dynasty emerged, that of the [[Ottoman dynasty|Ottomans]], who, after 1450, are referred to as the "first Ottomans". Turkmen artworks can be seen as the forerunners of Ottoman art, in particular the "Milet" ceramics and the first blue-and-white Anatolian works.

Islamic book painting witnessed its first golden age in the thirteenth century, mostly from Syria and Iraq. Influence from Byzantine visual vocabulary (blue and gold coloring, angelic and victorious motifs, symbology of drapery) combined with Mongoloid facial types in 12th-century [[book frontispiece]]s.

Earlier coinage necessarily featured Arabic [[epigraphy|epigraph]]s, but as Ayyubid society became more cosmopolitan and multi-ethnic, coinage began to feature [[astrology|astrological]], figural (featuring a variety of Greek, Seleucid, Byzantine, Sasanian, and contemporary Turkish rulers' busts), and animal images.

Hillenbrand suggests that the medieval Islamic texts called ''[[Maqama]]t'', copied and illustrated by [[Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti]] were some of the earliest "[[coffee table book]]s". They were among the first texts to hold up a mirror to daily life in Islamic art, portraying humorous stories and showing little to no inheritance of pictorial tradition.<ref>Hillenbrand, p.128-131</ref>

====Indian subcontinent====
[[File:RedFortAgra-Musamman-Burj-20080211-2.jpg|thumb|[[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] [[Arabesque (Islamic art)|Arabesque]] inlays at the  [[Agra Fort]], India.]]
The Indian subcontinent, some northern parts of which conquered by the Ghaznavids and Ghurids in the 9th century, did not become autonomous until 1206, when the Muizzi, or slave-kings, seized power, marking the birth of the [[Delhi Sultanate]]. Later other competing sultanates were founded in [[Bengal Sultanate|Bengal]], [[Kashmir region|Kashmir]], [[Gujarat]], [[Jaunpur Sultanate|Jaunpur]], [[Malwa (Madhya Pradesh)|Malwa]], and in the north [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] (the [[Bahmani Sultanate|Bahmanids]]). They separated themselves little by little from Persian traditions, giving birth to an original approach to architecture and urbanism, marked in particular by interaction with [[Hindu]] art. Study of the production of objects has hardly begun, but a lively art of manuscript illumination is known. The period of the sultanates ended with the arrival of the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]], who progressively seized their territories.