Editing History of Guatemala (section)

==== Manuel Estrada Cabrera regime (1898–1920) ====
{{Main|Manuel Estrada Cabrera}}
[[File:Manuel Estrada Cabrera.jpg|thumb|[[Manuel Estrada Cabrera]] ruled Guatemala from 1898 to 1920.]]

After the assassination of General [[José María Reina Barrios]] on 8 February 1898, the Guatemalan cabinet convened an emergency meeting to appoint a new successor but did not invite [[Estrada Cabrera]] to the meeting, despite him being the First Designated to the Presidency. There are two versions of how he managed to become president:

* (a) Estrada Cabrera entered "with pistol drawn" to assert his entitlement to the presidency{{sfn|Chapman|2007|p=54}}
* (b) Estrada Cabrera showed up unarmed and demanded the presidency, asserting his position as the First Designated{{sfn|Arévalo Martinez|1945|p=42}}

The first Guatemalan head of state from civilian life in over 50 years, Estrada Cabrera overcame resistance to his regime by August 1898 and called for September elections, which he won handily.{{sfn|Arévalo Martinez|1945|p=46}} At that time, Estrada Cabrera was 44 years old; he was stocky, of medium height, dark, and broad-shouldered. His mustache gave him a plebeian appearance. He had dark eyes, a metallic voice, and a rather sullen, brooding mien. His courage and character were evident on the night Reina Barrios died, when he stood in front of the ministers meeting in the Government Palace to choose a successor and said: ''Gentlemen, let me please sign this decree. As First Designated, you must hand me the Presidency.'' His first decree was a general [[amnesty]], and his second was to reopen all elementary schools closed by Reina Barrios {{clarify|note spelling discrepancy with previous sentence|date=April 2024}}, both administrative and political measures aimed at gaining public support. Estrada Cabrera was almost unknown in the political circles of the capital, and the nature of his government and his intentions were unclear.{{sfn|Montenegro|2005}}

In 1898, the Legislature convened to elect President Estrada Cabrera, who triumphed due to the significant number of soldiers and policemen who voted in civilian clothing, as well as the large number of illiterate families they brought to the polls. Additionally, effective propaganda was disseminated through the official newspaper ''La Idea Liberal''.{{clarify|date=April 2024}} The newspaper was managed by the poet [[Joaquín Méndez]], with contributions from writers such as [[Enrique Gómez Carrillo]], who had just returned from Paris and believed that Estrada Cabrera was the president Guatemala needed; [[Rafael Spinola]]; [[Máximo Soto Hall]]; and Juan Manuel Mendoza, who would later become Gómez Carrillo's biographer. In recognition of his work as a political propagandist, Gómez Carrillo was appointed General Consul in Paris with a monthly salary of 250 gold pesos and immediately returned to Europe.{{sfn|Torres Espinoza|2007|p=42}}

One of Estrada Cabrera's most infamous legacies was his decision to allow the [[United Fruit Company]] to enter the Guatemalan economic and political arena. As a member of the [[Liberalism in Latin America|Liberal Party]], he aimed to develop the nation's infrastructure, including highways, railroads, and [[sea ports]], to expand the export economy. By the time Estrada Cabrera assumed the presidency, there had been repeated efforts to construct a railroad from the major port of [[Puerto Barrios]] to the capital, Guatemala City. However, due to a lack of funding exacerbated by the collapse of the internal coffee trade, the railway fell {{convert|60|mi|km|sigfig=1|order=flip}} short of its goal. Estrada Cabrera decided, without consulting the legislature or judiciary, that making a deal with the United Fruit Company was the only way to complete the railway.{{sfn|Dosal|1993}} In 1904, he signed a contract with UFCO's [[Minor Cooper Keith]], granting the company tax exemptions, land grants, and control of all railroads on the Atlantic coast.{{sfn|Chapman|2007}}

Estrada Cabrera often employed brutal methods to assert his authority, reflecting the tyrannical style of government in Guatemala at the time. Like his predecessors [[Rafael Carrera]] y Turcios and [[Justo Rufino Barrios]], who had led similarly autocratic regimes, Cabrera began his first presidential term by prosecuting political rivals and establishing a well-organised network of spies. One American ambassador returned to the United States after learning that the dictator had ordered his poisoning. Former President [[Manuel Barillas]] was stabbed to death in Mexico City, outside the Mexican Presidential Residence, on Cabrera's orders; the street where this occurred is now named Calle Guatemala. Cabrera also responded violently to workers' strikes against the [[United Fruit Company]] (UFCO). In one instance, after the armed forces refused to intervene, UFCO went directly to Cabrera. The president then ordered an armed unit to enter the workers' compound, where they fired indiscriminately into the workers' sleeping quarters, wounding and killing an unspecified number of people.{{sfn|Chapman|2007|p=83}}

In 1906, Cabrera faced serious revolts supported by some Central American governments, but he succeeded in suppressing them. Elections held against Cabrera's will resulted in the murder of the president-elect in retaliation. In 1907, the brothers Avila Echeverría, along with a group of associates, planned to kill Cabrera with a bomb. Despite their education at foreign universities and their prominent backgrounds, they returned to find a nation under constant fear and a president ruling without opposition.{{sfn|de Aerenlund|2006}}

The attack was carefully planned, but when Cabrera went for a carriage ride, the bomb exploded, killing the horse and driver but only slightly injuring the president. The attackers, unable to escape, took their own lives. Their families were subsequently imprisoned in the notorious ''Penitenciaría Central'', where conditions were cruel and foul. Political prisoners were tortured daily, and their screams were heard throughout the penitentiary. Many prisoners died under these harsh conditions, as political crimes were not pardonable.{{sfn|de Aerenlund|2006}} It has been suggested that Estrada Cabrera's extreme despotic characteristics emerged following this attempt on his life in 1907.{{sfn|Arévalo Martinez|1945|p=146}}

Estrada Cabrera remained in power until he was forced to resign in 1920 due to new revolts. By this time, his power had significantly waned, and he was reliant on the loyalty of a few generals. Although the United States had threatened intervention if he were removed through revolution, a bipartisan coalition formed to oust him. He was deposed after the national assembly declared him mentally incompetent and was replaced by Carlos Herrera on 8 April 1920.{{sfn|Dosal|1993|p=27}}

In 1920, Prince [[Prince Wilhelm, Duke of Södermanland|Wilhelm of Sweden]] visited Guatemala and provided an objective account of Guatemalan society and the Estrada Cabrera government in his book ''Between Two Continents: Notes from a Journey in Central America, 1920''.{{sfn|Wilhelm of Sweden|1922|pp=148–209}} The prince described Guatemalan society as having three sharply defined classes:{{sfn|Wilhelm of Sweden|1922|p=152}}

* [[Criollo people|Criollos]]: A minority descended from Spanish conquerors who, by 1920, were heavily mixed with foreigners and had significant indigenous ancestry. They dominated both politics and intellectual life due to their superior education compared to the rest of the population and their control over much of the country's cultivated land.{{sfn|Wilhelm of Sweden|1922|p=153}}
* Ladinos: The middle class, comprising individuals of mixed indigenous, black, and Criollo ancestry. In 1920, they held minimal political power and were primarily artisans, storekeepers, tradesmen, and minor officials. Agricultural laborers were also found in the eastern part of the country.{{sfn|Wilhelm of Sweden|1922|p=154}}
* Indians (Maya): A large, uneducated group that was disinclined to change. They were a major part of the agricultural workforce and were often employed as soldiers due to their respect for authority. They were divided into three categories:
** "Mozos colonos": Settled on plantations with a small piece of land for personal cultivation, working on plantations for part of the year.{{sfn|Wilhelm of Sweden|1922|p=154}}
** "Mozos jornaleros": Day-laborers hired for specific periods, paid daily wages. Although theoretically free, they were often bound by debt to their employers, making it difficult to leave. If they attempted to escape, they could be pursued and imprisoned at their own expense.{{sfn|Wilhelm of Sweden|1922|p=155}}
** Independent tillers: Residing in remote areas, they grew crops such as maize, wheat, or beans for personal use and occasional sale in town markets, sometimes traveling up to {{convert|25|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} to do so.{{sfn|Wilhelm of Sweden|1922|p=156}}