Editing English Civil War (section)

==Third English Civil War (1649–1651)==

===Ireland===
{{Main|Anglo-Scottish war (1650–1652)}}
{{See also|Cromwellian conquest of Ireland}}
[[File:Massacre at Drogheda.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.17|A 19th-century representation of the Massacre at [[Drogheda]] in Ireland in 1649]]
Ireland had undergone continual war since the [[Irish Rebellion of 1641|rebellion of 1641]], with most of the island controlled by the [[Confederate Ireland|Irish Confederates]].{{Sfn|Leniham|2008|p=121}} Increasingly threatened by the armies of the English Parliament after Charles I's arrest in 1648, the Confederates signed a treaty of alliance with the English Royalists.{{Sfn|Leniham|2008|p=122}} The joint Royalist and Confederate forces under [[James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde|James Butler, Duke of Ormonde]] tried to eliminate the Parliamentary army holding [[Dublin]] by [[Siege of Dublin (1649)|laying siege in 1649]], but their opponents routed them at the [[Battle of Rathmines]] (2 August 1649).{{Sfn|Leniham|2008|p=127}} [[Admiral Robert Blake]], a former Member of Parliament, had blockaded Prince Rupert's fleet in [[Kinsale]], enabling Oliver Cromwell to land at [[Dublin]] on 15 August 1649 with an army to quell the Royalist alliance.{{Sfn|Leniham|2008|p=128}}

Cromwell's suppression of the Royalists in Ireland in 1649 is still remembered by many Irish people. After the [[Siege of Drogheda]],{{Sfn|Leniham|2008|p=128}} the massacre of nearly 3,500 people – around 2,700 Royalist soldiers and 700 others, including civilians, prisoners, and Catholic priests (all of whom Cromwell claimed had carried arms) – became one of the historical memories that has driven Irish-English and Catholic-Protestant strife during the last three centuries. The Parliamentarian conquest of Ireland ground on for another four years until 1653, when the last [[Confederate Ireland|Irish Confederate]] and Royalist troops surrendered.{{Sfn|Leniham|2008|p=132}} In the wake of the conquest, the victors confiscated almost all Irish Catholic-owned land and distributed it to Parliament's creditors, to Parliamentary soldiers who served in Ireland, and to English who had settled there before the war.{{Sfn|Leniham|2008|pp=135–136}}

===Scotland===
{{See also|Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms}}
The execution of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] altered the dynamics of [[Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms|the Civil War in Scotland]], which had raged between Royalists and [[Covenanter]]s since 1644. By 1649, the struggle had left the Royalists there in disarray and their erstwhile leader, [[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose|James Graham, Marquess of Montrose]], had gone into exile. At first, [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] encouraged Montrose to raise a Highland army to fight on the Royalist side.{{Sfn|Carpenter|2005|p=145}} When the Scottish Covenanters, who did not agree with the execution of Charles I and who feared for the future of [[Presbyterianism]] under the new [[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth]], offered him the crown of Scotland, Charles abandoned Montrose to his enemies.

Montrose, who had raised a [[mercenary]] force in Norway,{{Sfn|Carpenter|2005|p=145}} had already landed and could not abandon the fight. He did not succeed in raising many Highland clans and the Covenanters defeated his army at the [[Battle of Carbisdale 1650|Battle of Carbisdale]] in [[Ross-shire]] on 27 April 1650. The victors captured Montrose shortly afterwards and took him to Edinburgh. On 20 May the Scottish Parliament sentenced him to death and had him hanged the next day.{{Sfn|Carpenter|2005|p=146}}

[[File:Cromwell at Dunbar Andrew Carrick Gow.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Cromwell at Dunbar]]'', by [[Andrew Carrick Gow]], 1886]]
Charles II landed in Scotland at [[Garmouth]] in [[Morayshire]] on 23 June 1650{{Sfn|Brett|2008|p=39}} and signed the 1638 [[National Covenant]] and the 1643 [[Solemn League and Covenant]] shortly after coming ashore.{{Sfn|Brett|2008|p=41}} With his original Scottish Royalist followers and his new Covenanter allies, Charles II became the greatest threat facing the new English republic. In response to the threat, Cromwell left some of his lieutenants in Ireland to continue the suppression of the Irish Royalists and returned to England.{{Sfn|Carpenter|2005|p=146}}

He arrived in Scotland on 22 July 1650{{Sfn|Reid|Turner|2004|p=18}} and proceeded to lay siege to Edinburgh. By the end of August, disease and a shortage of supplies had reduced his army, and he had to order a retreat towards his base at [[Dunbar]]. A Scottish army under the command of [[David Leslie (Scottish general)|David Leslie]] tried to block the retreat, but Cromwell defeated them at the [[Battle of Dunbar (1650)|Battle of Dunbar]] on 3 September. Cromwell's army then took Edinburgh, and by the end of the year his army had occupied much of southern Scotland.

In July 1651, Cromwell's forces crossed the [[Firth of Forth]] into [[Fife]] and defeated the Scots at the [[Battle of Inverkeithing]] (20 July 1651).{{Sfn|Carpenter|2005|p=158}} The New Model Army advanced towards [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]], which allowed Charles, at the head of the Scottish army, to move south into England. Cromwell followed Charles into England, leaving [[George Monck]] to finish the campaign in Scotland. Monck took [[Stirling]] on 14 August and [[Dundee]] on 1 September.{{Sfn|Carpenter|2005|p=185}} The next year, 1652, saw a mopping up of the remnants of Royalist resistance, and under the terms of the "[[Tender of Union]]", the Scots received 30 seats in a united Parliament in London, with General Monck as the military governor of Scotland.{{Sfn|Dand|1972|p=20}}

===England===
Although Cromwell's New Model Army had defeated a Scottish army at Dunbar, Cromwell could not prevent Charles II from marching from Scotland deep into England at the head of another Royalist army.<ref name="Weiser-01">{{Harvnb|Weiser|2003|p=1}}.</ref> They marched to the west of England where English Royalist sympathies were strongest, but although some English Royalists joined the army, they were far fewer in number than Charles and his Scottish supporters had hoped. Cromwell finally engaged and defeated the new Scottish king at [[Battle of Worcester|Worcester]] on 3 September 1651.{{Sfn|Carpenter|2005|p=145}}{{Sfn|Atkin|2008|p={{Page needed|date=September 2016}}}}

===Wales===
For several reasons most of [[Wales]] was not as engaged in the English Civil Wars to the same degree as other parts of the British Isles. Wales was isolated from England, both physically and linguistically, so the Welsh were not as much engaged as England in the issues between the king and Parliament.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Glanmor |title=Recovery, Reorientation, And Reformation: Wales, C. 1415 – 1642 |date=1987 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198217336 |location=New York |page=487 |oclc=15488908}}</ref> The English considered Wales a remote land, with Welsh, not English, as the primary language. Since England had formally assimilated Wales into the kingdom, starting in 1536 formal agreements had been put in place under Henry VIII and continued under Charles I that allowed for Welsh local administrative authority and economic control, which allowed the Welsh to function to some degree independently.{{Sfn|Williams|1987|page=488}}<ref name="Stoyle">{{Cite journal |last=Stoyle |first=Mark |date=December 2000 |title=English 'Nationalism', Celtic Particularism, And the English Civil War |journal=The Historical Journal |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=43 |pages=1113–1128 |jstor=3020883 |s2cid=159953456 |number=4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=John |title=A History of Wales |date=1993 |publisher=The Penguin Press |isbn=0-713-99098-8 |edition=First English |location=London |page=278}}</ref> Another factor was the Puritan religion, which played a major role in the English Civil Wars but was not widely practised throughout Wales. Welsh Puritan religious dominance was found in northeast Wales near [[Wrexham]], [[Denbighshire]], and an indirect Puritan influence found along the southwestern coast near [[Haverfordwest]], Pembroke, and [[Tenby]] due to a combination of a strong influence by the third earl of Essex and their strong trade relations with Bristol, England, a fervent Puritan stronghold.{{Sfn|Jenkins|1987|p=6}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=John |title=A History of Wales |date=1993 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=0713990988 |page=276}}</ref> In addition, Wales comparatively more rural in character than England at this time, and thereby lacking the large number of urban settlements home to mercantile, trade, and manufacturing interests who were a bulwark of support for both Puritanism and eventually the Parliamentarian cause.

Many of the key Welsh Civil Wars leaders were from the gentry class holding Royalist sympathies,{{Sfn|Williams|1987|page=488}} or from the Church. Those Welsh who did participate in the Civil Wars battles were underequipped, underfed, and not properly trained for warfare.{{Sfn|Jenkins|1987|p=25}} The majority of Welsh followed the Protestant faith with a religious perspective that differed from the English puritan zeal.<ref name=Stoyle/> They were also leery of the Irish Catholics invading Wales. The Welsh also did not want to lose what they had, for the gentry were aware of the destruction the Thirty Years' War caused in Europe.<ref>{{Harvnb|Williams|1987|page=489}}</ref>

Most of those English Civil War battles where Wales was impacted occurred near the border with England and in south Wales.{{Sfn|Jenkins|1987|pp=28–29}} Some of the more significant engagements were:

* In Gloucester, England (not far from Wales) Lord Herbert of Raglan (Wales) had Welsh troops assisting the royalists trying to take Gloucester in March, August, and September 1643, but without success;{{Sfn|Jenkins|1987|p=10}}
* In November 1643 [[Sir Thomas Myddelton, 1st Baronet|Thomas Myddelton]] had secured the north Wales Royalist stronghold of Flintshire and the area east of Denbighshire, depriving Royalists based in Chester, England of their supplies. In response to this attack Archbishop John Williams, on behalf of the Royalists, responded to this attack by taking Wrexham from the Parliamentarians;{{Sfn|Jenkins|1987|pp=10–12}}
*  Initially in the summer of 1643, Royalist forces under [[Richard Vaughan, 2nd Earl of Carbery|Richard Vaughan of Golden Grove, 2nd Earl of Carbery]], who had been appointed lieutenant-general by the King, was successful in securing three of the southwestern Welsh counties; but in early 1644 Parliamentarians conducted a successful sea and land assault campaign on Pembroke, Haverfordwest, Milford Pil; and continuing on to Swansea and Cardiff. As a result of these Royalist failures the King replaced Carbery with Colonel [[Charles Gerard, 1st Earl of Macclesfield]] who was able to regain many of these lost territories in Cardiganshire and Carmarthenshire;{{Sfn|Jenkins|1987|pp=12–13}}
* On 18 September 1644 the first pitched battle on Welsh soil at Montgomery was a successful win for Myddelton;{{Sfn|Jenkins|1987|pp=14–15}}
* On 1 August 1645 the Royalist forces were once again defeated at Colby Moor;{{Sfn|Jenkins|1987|pp=15–16}}
* During the Second Civil War the Royalists were decisively defeated at the battle of St. [[Battle of St Fagans|Fagans]] near Cardiff, which was one of the last more significant battles.{{Sfn|Jenkins|1987|p=21}}

In addition to the Civil Wars' impact on the monarchy and the changes in national leadership, unexpected outcomes of the English Civil Wars to Wales included a significant degradation of the country's road system, a deterioration of government administrative functions to the general population, destruction of castles with only the remnants of them remaining, and the desecration of churches.{{Sfn|Jenkins|1987|pp=28–29}}

===Immediate aftermath===
After the Royalist defeat at Worcester, [[Escape of Charles II|Charles II escaped]] to France via safe houses and [[Royal Oak (tree)|an oak tree]].<ref name=Weiser-01/> Parliament was left in ''de facto'' control of England. Resistance continued for a time in Ireland and Scotland, but with the pacification of England, resistance elsewhere did not threaten the military supremacy of the New Model Army and its Parliamentary paymasters.