Editing Cossacks (section)

===Razin and Pugachev Rebellions===
As a largely independent nation, the Cossacks had to defend their liberties and democratic traditions against the ever-expanding [[Tsardom of Russia|Muscovy]], succeeded by the Russian Empire. Their tendency to act independently of the Tsardom of Russia increased friction. The Tsardom's power began to grow in 1613, with the ascension of [[Mikhail Romanov]] to the throne following the [[Time of Troubles]]. The government began attempting to integrate the Cossacks into the Russian Tsardom by granting elite status and enforcing military service, thus creating divisions among the Cossacks themselves as they fought to retain their traditions. The government's efforts to alter their traditional nomadic lifestyle resulted in the Cossacks being involved in nearly all the major disturbances in Russia over 200 years, including the rebellions led by [[Stepan Razin]] and [[Yemelyan Pugachev]].<ref name=Avrich_1976/>{{rp|59}}

[[File:surikov1906.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|''Stenka Razin Sailing in the [[Caspian Sea]]'', by [[Vasily Surikov]], 1906]]

As [[Tsardom of Russia|Russia]] regained stability, discontent grew within the serf and peasant populations. Under [[Alexis of Russia|Alexis Romanov]], Mikhail's son, the [[Code of 1649]] divided the Russian population into distinct and fixed hereditary categories.<ref name=Avrich_1976/>{{rp|52}} The Code increased tax revenue for the central government and put an end to nomadism, to stabilize the social order by fixing people on the same land and in the same occupation as their families. Peasants were tied to the land, and townsmen were forced to take on their fathers' occupations. The increased tax burden fell mainly on the peasants, further widening the gap between the poor and wealthy. Human and material resources became limited as the government organized more military expeditions, putting even greater strain on the peasants. War with Poland and Sweden in 1662 led to a fiscal crisis, and rioting across the country.<ref name=Avrich_1976/>{{rp|58}} Taxes, harsh conditions, and the gap between social classes drove peasants and serfs to flee. Many went to the Cossacks, knowing that the Cossacks would accept refugees and free them.

The Cossacks experienced difficulties under Tsar Alexis as more refugees arrived daily. The Tsar gave the Cossacks a [[subsidy]] of food, money, and military supplies in return for acting as border defense.<ref name=Avrich_1976/>{{rp|60}} These subsidies fluctuated often; a source of conflict between the Cossacks and the government. The war with Poland diverted necessary food and military shipments to the Cossacks as fugitive peasants swelled the population of the [[Cossack host]]. The influx of refugees troubled the Cossacks, not only because of the increased demand for food but also because their large number meant the Cossacks could not absorb them into their culture by way of the traditional apprenticeship.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|91}} Instead of taking these steps for proper assimilation into Cossack society, the runaway peasants spontaneously declared themselves Cossacks and lived alongside the true Cossacks, laboring or working as barge-haulers to earn food.

Divisions among the Cossacks began to emerge as conditions worsened and Mikhail's son Alexis took the throne. Older Cossacks began to settle and become prosperous, enjoying privileges earned through obeying and assisting the [[Muscovite Russia|Muscovite system]].<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|90–91}}<ref name=Avrich_1976/>{{rp|62}} The old Cossacks started giving up the traditions and liberties that had been worth dying for, to obtain the pleasures of an elite life. The lawless and restless runaway peasants who called themselves Cossacks looked for adventure and revenge against the nobility that had caused them suffering. These Cossacks did not receive the government subsidies that the old Cossacks enjoyed, and had to work harder and longer for food and money.

====Razin's Rebellion====
[[File:Ivan Bilibin 129.jpg|thumb|[[Stepan Razin|Stenka Razin]], by [[Ivan Bilibin]]]]

The divisions between the elite and the lawless led to the formation of a Cossack army, beginning in 1667 under [[Stenka Razin]], and ultimately to the failure of Razin's rebellion.

Stenka Razin was born into an elite Cossack family, and had made many diplomatic visits to Moscow before organizing his rebellion.<ref name=Avrich_1976/>{{rp|66–67}} The Cossacks were Razin's main supporters, and followed him during his first Persian campaign in 1667, plundering and pillaging Persian cities on the [[Caspian Sea]]. They returned in 1669, ill and hungry, tired from fighting, but rich with plundered goods.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|95–97}} [[Tsardom of Russia|Russia]] tried to gain support from the old Cossacks, asking the [[ataman]], or Cossack chieftain, to prevent Razin from following through with his plans. But the ataman was Razin's godfather, and was swayed by Razin's promise of a share of expedition wealth. His reply was that the elite Cossacks were powerless against the band of rebels. The elite did not see much threat from Razin and his followers either, although they realized he could cause them problems with the Muscovite system if his following developed into a rebellion against the central government.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|95–96}}

Razin and his followers began to capture cities at the start of the rebellion, in 1669. They seized the towns of [[Tsaritsyn]], [[Astrakhan]], [[Saratov]], and [[Samara, Russia|Samara]], implementing democratic rule and releasing peasants from slavery as they went.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|100–105}} Razin envisioned a united Cossack republic throughout the southern steppe, in which the towns and villages would operate under the democratic, Cossack style of government. Their sieges often took place in the runaway peasant Cossacks' old towns, leading them to wreak havoc there and take revenge on their old masters. The elder Cossacks began to see the rebels' advance as a problem, and in 1671 decided to comply with the government in order to receive more subsidies.<ref name=Avrich_1976/>{{rp|112}} On April&nbsp;14, ataman Yakovlev led elders to destroy the rebel camp. They captured Razin, taking him soon afterward to Moscow to be executed.

Razin's rebellion marked the beginning of the end of traditional Cossack practices. In August 1671, Russian envoys administered the [[oath of allegiance]] and the Cossacks swore loyalty to the [[tsar]].<ref name=Avrich_1976/>{{rp|113}} While they still had internal [[autonomy]], the Cossacks became Russian subjects, a transition that was a dividing point again in [[Pugachev's Rebellion]].

====Pugachev's Rebellion====
[[File:Don-kosack.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Don Cossack in the early 1800s]]

For the Cossack [[elite]], noble status within the empire came at the price of their old liberties in the 18th century. Advancing agricultural settlement began to force the Cossacks to give up their traditional [[nomadic]] ways and adopt new forms of government. The government steadily changed the entire culture of the Cossacks. [[Peter the Great]] increased Cossack service obligations, and mobilized their forces to fight in far-off wars. Peter began establishing non-Cossack troops in fortresses along the [[Ural River|Yaik River]]. In 1734, construction of a government fortress at [[Orenburg]] gave Cossacks a subordinate role in border defense.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|115}} When the Yaik Cossacks sent a delegation to Peter with their grievances, Peter stripped the Cossacks of their autonomous status, and subordinated them to the [[College of War|War College]] rather than the College of Foreign Affairs. This consolidated the Cossacks' transition from border patrol to military servicemen. Over the next fifty years, the central government responded to Cossack grievances with arrests, [[flogging]]s, and exiles.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|116–117}}

Under [[Catherine the Great]], beginning in 1762, the Russian peasants and Cossacks again faced increased taxation, heavy military conscription, and grain shortages, as before Razin's rebellion. [[Peter III of Russia|Peter III]] had extended freedom to former church serfs, freeing them from obligations and payments to church authorities, and had freed other peasants from serfdom, but Catherine did not follow through on these reforms.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-first=Jack P.|editor1-last=Greene |editor2-first= Robert|editor2-last= Forster|chapter =Pugachev's Rebellion|title = Preconditions of Revolution in Early Modern Europe|first1= Marc|last1= Raeff|publisher =The Johns Hopkins Press |date= 1975|page= 170}}</ref> In 1767, the Empress refused to accept grievances directly from the peasantry.<ref>Raeff, ''Pugachev's Rebellion'', p. 172.</ref> Peasants fled once again to the lands of the Cossacks, in particular the Yaik Host, whose people were committed to the old Cossack traditions. The changing government also burdened the Cossacks, extending its reach to reform Cossack traditions. Among ordinary Cossacks, hatred of the elite and central government rose. In 1772, a six–month open rebellion ensued between the Yaik Cossacks and the central government.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|116–117}}

[[File:Pugachev.jpg|left|thumb|[[Yemelyan Pugachev]] in prison]]

[[Yemelyan Pugachev]], a low-status [[Don Cossack]], arrived in the Yaik Host in late 1772.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|117}} There, he claimed to be Peter&nbsp;III, playing on the Cossack belief that Peter would have been an effective ruler but for his assassination in a plot by his wife, Catherine&nbsp;II.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|120}} Many Yaik Cossacks believed Pugachev's claim, although those closest to him knew the truth. Others, who may have known of it, did not support Catherine&nbsp;II due to her disposal of Peter&nbsp;III, and also spread Pugachev's claim to be the late emperor.

The first of three phases of Pugachev's Rebellion began in September 1773.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|124}} Most of the rebels' first prisoners were Cossacks who supported the elite. After a five-month siege of [[Orenburg]], a military college became Pugachev's headquarters.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|126}} Pugachev envisioned a Cossack [[tsardom]], similar to Razin's vision of a united Cossack republic. The peasantry across Russia stirred with rumors and listened to the [[manifesto]]s Pugachev issued. But the rebellion soon came to be seen as an inevitable failure. The Don Cossacks refused to help the final phase of the revolt, knowing that military troops were closely following Pugachev after lifting the siege of Orenburg, and following his flight from defeated [[Kazan]].<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|127–128}} In September 1774, Pugachev's own Cossack lieutenants turned him over to the government troops.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|128}}

Opposition to centralization of political authority led the Cossacks to participate in Pugachev's Rebellion.<ref name=ORourke_2008/>{{rp|129–130}} After their defeat, the Cossack elite accepted government reforms, hoping to secure status within the nobility. The ordinary Cossacks had to follow and give up their traditions and liberties.