Editing Chinese mythology (section)

==Age of heroes==
{{Further|List of culture heroes#Chinese mythology}}

Various culture heroes have been said to have helped or saved humanity in many ways, such as stopping floods, teaching the use of fire, and so on. As mythic chronology is inherently nonlinear, with time being telescopically expanded or contracted, there are various contradictions. The earliest culture heroes were sometimes considered deities and other times heroic humans, but often little distinction was made. Examples of early culture heroes include [[Youchao]] ("Have Nest") who taught people how to make wooden shelters{{sfn|Wu|1982|p=51}}{{sfn|Christie|1968|p=84}}) and [[Suiren]] ("Fire Maker") who taught people the use of [[Bow drill|fire]] and cooking thus saving them from much food-poisoning, in addition to developing [[History of Chinese cuisine|cuisine]].{{sfn|Wu|1982|p=51}}{{sfn|Christie|1968|p=84}} Another example of a mythological hero who provided beneficial knowledge to humanity involves [[sericulture]], the production of [[silk]]: an invention credited to [[Leizu]], for one. An example of a non-Han ethnicity culture hero is [[Panhu]]. Because of their self-identification as descendants from these original ancestors, Panhu has been worshiped by the [[Yao people]] and the [[She people]], often as King Pan, and the eating of dog meat was tabooed.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|pp=52–53}} This ancestral myth has also been found among the [[Miao people]] and [[Li people]].{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|pp=100, 180}} Some of the first culture heroes are the legendary emperors who succeeded the times of the part-human, part-serpent deities Nuwa and Fuxi; these emperors tend to be portrayed as more explicitly human, although Huangdi, the Yellow Emperor, is often portrayed as part-dragon during life.

===Mythological emperors===
{{Further|Family tree of ancient Chinese emperors}}

====Historicity====
Some historicized versions of semi-historical and undeniably mythologized accounts of ancient times were used by those who have attempted to apply actual BCE dates to the mythological chronology. Traditional Chinese accounts of the early emperors chronologically locate the Yellow Emperor as having lived in the Northern Chinese plain around 2698 to 2599 BCE,{{sfn||Wu|1982|p=61}} about seventeen generations after the time of Shennong.{{sfn|Wu|1982|pp=56, 100 n. 25}} A major difference between the possible historicity of material embedded in mythological accounts is that through the time of the last Flame Emperor (Yandi) information was recorded using knotted ropes,{{sfn|Wu|1982|p=56}} whereas the introduction of writing is associated with the reign of Huang Di (although the historical continuity of written tradition beginning at that time is a matter of discussion by experts). The most prominent of the first emperors include, in chronological order, Huangdi, Gaoyang (Zhuanxu), Gaoxin (Di Ku), Yao, and Shun. These emperors were said to be morally upright and benevolent, and examples to be emulated by latter-day kings and emperors. Sometimes approximate calculations of times have been made based on the claimed number of generations from one significant mythological figure to the next, as in the case of the legendary founder of the Ji family, [[Hou Ji]], whose descendants would rule generations after his mythological appearance as the historical [[Zhou dynasty]], beginning around 1046 BCE. Despite various assignments of dates to the accounts of these Emperors, fantastic claims about the length of their reigns are common. The average reign-lengths that these numbers imply are improbable, and there is a lack of consensus regarding these dates by modern historians. Their historical use may be limited to establishing a relative chronology.

===Houji===
{{Main|Hou Ji}}
{{Further|Five Grains}}

Houji was a cultural hero, of the agricultural type.{{sfn||Birrell|1993|pp=54–58}}

===Chiyou===
[[File:Chi You.gif|thumb|Chiyou]]
{{Main|Chiyou}}

Chiyou (also known as Ch'ih Yu) was a metallurgical engineer, specializing in weaponry.{{sfn||Birrell|1993|pp=50–53}}

===Three Primeval Emperors, Five Premier Emperors, and Three Dynasties===
{{Further||Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors}}

The mythological history of people (or at least the Han Chinese people) begins with two groups, one of three and one of five. The numbers are symbolically significant, however, the actual membership of the two groups is not explicated. There are different lists. The older group is the Three Primeval Emperors, who were followed by the Five Premier Emperors.{{sfn||Wu|1982|pp=43–105}} After that came the Three Dynasties:{{sfn||Wu|1982|p=55}} these were the [[Xia dynasty]], [[Shang dynasty]], and the [[Zhou dynasty]]. These three are all historically attested to, but separating the myth from the history is not always clear; nevertheless, there is a lot of mythology around the Three Primeval Emperors, Five Premier Emperors, and Three Dynasties. An age of Three Primeval Emperors followed by the age of the Five Premier Emperors (''Sānhuáng-Wǔdì'') contrasts with the subsequent treatment of chronology by dynasties, up to recent times. Since the time the [[Qin Shi Huang|Qin emperor]] titled himself ''huangdi'' by combining two previous titles into one, ''huangdi'' was the title for Chinese emperors for ages.{{sfn||Wu|1982|p=102 note 3}}

====Three Primeval Emperors====

=====Title=====
The title of the Three Primeval Emperors is ''huang'', in Chinese. The original connotation of this title is unknown, and it is variously translated into English. Translations include "Sovereign", "Emperor", and "August".

=====Names=====
The names of the Three Primeval Emperors include Youchao ("Have Nest"), Suiren ("Fire Maker"), Paoxi/Fuxi ("Animal Domesticator"), and Shennong ("Divine Husbandman").{{sfn|Wu|1982|p=50}} Sometimes Huangdi is included.

====Five Premier Emperors====

=====Title=====
The title of the Five Premier Emperors is ''di'', in Chinese. The original connotation of this title is unknown, or how it compares or contrasts with the term ''huang'', and it is variously translated into English.  Translations include "Sovereign", "Emperor", and "Lord".

=====Names=====
Names of the Five Premier Emperors include Huangdi, Shaohao, Zhuanxu, Di Ku, Yao, and Shun.

===Nuwa and Fuxi===
[[File:Anonymous-Fuxi and Nüwa.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Nüwa and Fuxi represented as half-snake, half-human creatures.]]
{{Main|Nüwa|Fuxi}}

Nuwa and Fuxi (also known as Paoxi) are sometimes worshiped as the ultimate ancestor of all humankind and are often represented as half-snake, half-humans. Nuwa's companion, Fuxi, was her brother and husband.

====Nuwa saves the world====
{{Main|Nüwa Mends the Heavens}}
{{Further|Flood Mythology of China}}

After [[Gonggong|Gong-Gong]] was said to have damaged the world pillar holding the earth and sky apart, the sky was rent causing fires, floods (the [[Flood of Nuwa]]) and other devastating events which were only remedied when Nüwa repaired the sky with five colored stones. The figure of Nüwa, also referred to as Nü Kwa, appeared in literature no earlier than c. 350 BCE. It is sometimes believed that Nüwa molded humans from clay to populate or re-populate the world, thus creating modern humans.

====Fuxi and the Yellow River map====
{{Main|Yellow River Map}}

The production of the [[Yellow River Map]] is associated mythologically with Fuxi but is also sometimes placed in subsequent eras.

===Shennong and Yan Emperor(s)===
{{Further|Shennong||Yan Emperor|Agriculture in Chinese mythology|Five Grains}}

[[Shennong]] is variously translated as "Divine Farmer" or "Divine Peasant", or "Agriculture God", and also known as the Wugushen (Spirit of the Five Grains) and Wuguxiandi "First Deity of the Five Grains". Shennong is a mythological Chinese [[deity]] in [[Chinese folk religion]] and venerated as a [[culture hero|mythical sage ruler]] of prehistoric China. Shennong's descendants began to style themselves as Yan Emperor (''Yandi''), or Flame Emperor.{{sfn|Wu|1982|p=56}} ''Yandi'' is often considered an important mythological emperor, although ''Yandi'' is sometimes considered as series of emperors bearing the same title, the "Yan Emperor(s)" or "Flame Emperor(s)". ''Yan'' literally means "flame", implying that Yan Emperor's people possibly uphold a symbol of fire as their tribal [[totem]]s. [[K. C. Wu]] speculates that this appellation may be connected with the use of fire to clear the fields in [[slash and burn]] agriculture.{{sfn|Wu|1982|p=56}} And, Yandi is also a Red Emperor.

===Yellow Emperor and Leizu===
{{Main|Yellow Emperor|Leizu}}

One of the more important figures in Chinese mythology is the [[Yellow Emperor]], or Huang Di. His original name was Yellow Soil or Huangdi where di was the Chinese word for soil or ground. He was named after the Yellow Soil in the Yellow River Basin area where Chinese civilization was thought to have originated. Future generations later changed it to di or emperor in order to give Huangdi a more sovereign-sounding name. He also appears as Xuanyuan. Huang Di is also referred to as one of the Five August ones, and one of the few consistent members of the list.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|p=138}} There were also other colored emperors, such as Black, Green, Red, and White. According to some mythology, Huang Di was the son of Shaodian, who was the half-brother of Yan Di.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|p=138}} Huang Di's mother was said to be [[Fubao]]. Huang Di's wife Leizu is supposed to have invented sericulture. In some versions [[Cangjie]] invented writing during the reign of Huang Di. The Yellow Emperor is said to have fought a great battle against [[Chiyou]]. Huangdi had various wives and many descendants, including [[Shaohao]] (leader of the [[Dongyi]]).

===Di Ku===
{{Main|Emperor Ku}}
{{Further|Jiandi}}

Ku, Di Ku, Ti K'u, or Diku, is also known as Kao Hsin or Gāoxīn. Diku is an important mythological figure, as signified by his title ''Di'' ({{linktext|lang=zh|帝}}), basically signifying possession of some sort of imperial divinity, as in the sense of the Roman title ''[[wikt:divus]]''; something sometimes translated as "emperor". Diku is sometimes considered to descend from Huangdi and to be ancestral to the ruling family of the [[Shang dynasty]] of the second millennium BCE. Diku is credited with the invention of various musical instruments along with musical pieces for them to accompany.{{sfn|Birrell|1993|pp=53–54}} Diku is said to have consorted with the semi-divine females [[Jiang Yuan]] and [[Jiandi]].

===Yao and Shun===
{{Main|Emperor Yao|Emperor Shun}}

Yao and Shun were important mythological rulers, exemplars of propriety in rulership. The Great Flood began during the reign of Yao and continued through the time of [[Shun (Chinese leader)|Shun]] (the successor of Yao, who had passed over his own son and made Shun his successor because of Shun's ability and morality). Historically, when [[Qin Shi Huang]] united China in 221 BCE, he used propaganda to acclaim his achievements as surpassing those of mythological rulers who had gone before him. He combined the ancient titles of ''Huáng'' ({{lang|zh|皇}}) and ''Dì'' ({{lang|zh|帝}}) to create a new title, ''Huángdì'' ({{lang|zh|皇帝}}); thus, the Qin emperor used mythology to bolster his claims to be the legitimate and absolute ruler of the whole earth. This reflected what was to become a longstanding belief that all civilized people should have one government, and that it should be Chinese.{{sfn|Latourette|1947|p=3}}

===Gun, Yu, and the Great Flood===
{{Main|Great Flood (China)|Yu the Great}}
{{Further|Flood Mythology of China|Yi (husbandman)}}

Shun passed on his place as emperor to [[Yu the Great]]. The [[Yellow River]], prone to flooding, erupted in a huge flood in the time of Yao. The flood disrupted society and endangered human existence, as agricultural fields drowned, hunting game disappeared, and the people were dislocated to hills and mountains. Yu's father, [[Gun (Chinese mythology)|Gun]], was put in charge of flood control by Yao, but failed to alleviate the problem after nine years. In some versions Gun was executed by Shun's minister [[Zhurong]] for this failure, but according to others Gun was merely exiled for opposing the elevation of Shun as co-emperor. In more purely mythological versions, the story is more along the lines that Gun transformed into an animal shape to escape the wrath of Heaven (for having dared to go to Heaven and steal the flood-fighting expanding earth ''xirang''). He fled to [[Feather Mountain]] and was struck dead by the fire god [[Zhurong]] on behalf of Heaven. After three years, his son Yu appeared out of his belly, usually said to be in the form of some fantastic animal. Yu took his father's place fighting the flood, leading the people to build canals and levees, often said to be with the help of [[Xirang]]. After thirteen years of toil, Yu abated the flood. Why the Xirang failed to work when Gun used it and he was punished by Heaven, but when Yu used it he was able to stop the flood and was rewarded by Heaven, is a question frequently made in the myths. The mythology of Yu and his associates during their work in controlling the flood and simultaneously saving the people can be seen in various ways to symbolize different societal and cultural developments, such as innovations in hunting, agriculture, well-digging, astronomy, social and political organizing, and other cultural innovations that occur during the course of the mythology around the flood stories. For example, a historicized version of ''xirang'' explains this soil may represent an innovative type of raised garden, made up of soil, brushwood, and similar materials. Thus, Yu and his work in controlling the flood with ''xirang'' would symbolize a societal development allowing a large scale approach to transforming wetlands into arable fields.{{sfn|Hawkes|2011|pp=138–139}} Yu was said to be the founder of the [[Xia dynasty]].

===First dynasties===
The first three dynasties have especial significance in mythology.

====Xia dynasty====
{{Further|Xia dynasty}}
The Xia dynasty is the first dynasty in traditional [[Chinese historiography]] as known through literary accounts. However, many of these accounts contain elements of a clearly semi-mythological, and in some versions completely mythological or fanciful. The founding mythology of the early dynasties tends to have certain common general features, including the divine assistance obtained in the founding and the reasons for it. The fighter of the Great Flood, [[Yu the Great|Yu "the Great"]] had served Yao and Shun and they enfeoffed him as the Prince of Xia, an area of land.{{sfn|Wu|1982|p=106}} Upon Yu's death questions arose regarding the method of imperial succession, which would be a key factor as an example for Chinese culture for millennia. The question was who would succeed Yu upon his death. It could be his son, [[Qi of Xia]], also known as Kai, or the deputy that competently and diligently helped in the work against the great flood, a mighty hunter who helped feed the people during a time when agriculture had been rendered impossible, [[Yi (husbandman)|Bo Yi]]. The mythological variants are much concerned with the relative merits between the two. Qi's succession broke the previous convention of [[meritocracy|meritorious]] succession in favor of hereditary succession, thus initiating a dynastic tradition.{{sfn|Wu|1982|pp=116–117}} The new dynasty was called "Xia" after Yu's centre of power.

====Shang dynasty====
{{Further|Shang dynasty}}
The Shang dynasty is the earliest dynasty of traditional Chinese history firmly supported by archaeological evidence. Yet, as in common with the founding of Xia, there is mythological material regarding how the previous dynasty turned to evil and unworthy ways, and the founder (of miraculous birth or ancestry) overthrew it. The mythology of the Shang dynasty is distinct from philosophical and historical accounts. Significant mythology includes the origin of its founders, the miraculous birth by [[Jiandi]] of Shang founder Qi, also known as [[Xie of Shang]], after she became pregnant upon swallowing or holding in her bosom a bird's egg.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|pp=148–150, 186}} After several generations, Xie (or Qi)'s descendant Tang became king of Shang by overthrowing [[Jie of Xia|Jie]], the last king of the Xia dynasty, said to be a very drunken and bloodthirsty tyrant. The fifth book of the philosopher [[Mozi]] describes the end of the Xia dynasty and the beginning of the Shang:
{{blockquote|During the reign of King Jie of Xia, there was a great climatic change. Legends hold that the paths of the sun and moon changed, the seasons became confused, and the [[Five Cereals (China)|five grains]] dried up. Ghouls cried in the country and cranes shrieked for ten nights. Heaven ordered [[Tang of Shang|Shang Tang]] to receive the heavenly commission from the Xia dynasty, which had failed morally and which Heaven was determined to end. Shang Tang was commanded to destroy Xia with the promise of Heaven's help. In the dark, Heaven destroyed the fortress' pool, and Shang Tang then gained victory easily ([http://ctext.org/mozi/condemnation-of-offensive-war-iii {{lang|zh|非攻下}} Condemnation of Offensive War III, by Mozi]).}}

After discussing the end of Xia and the beginning of Shang, Mozi describes the end of Shang and the beginning of the succeeding Zhou dynasty:
{{blockquote|During the reign of [[King Zhou of Shang|Shang Zhòu]], Heaven could not endure Zhòu's morality and neglect of timely sacrifices. It rained mud for ten days and nights, the nine cauldrons shifted positions, supernatural prodigies appeared, and ghosts cried at night. There were women who became men while it rained flesh and thorny brambles, covering the national highways. A red bird brought a message: "Heaven decrees [[King Wen of Zhou]] to punish Yin and possess its empire". The Yellow River formed charts and the earth brought forth mythical horses. When [[King Wu of Zhou|King Wu]] became king, three gods appeared to him in a dream, telling him that they had drowned Shang Zhòu in wine and that King Wu was to attack him. On the way back from victory, the heavens gave him the emblem of a yellow bird.}}

The mythological events surrounding the end of the Shang dynasty and the establishment of the Zhou greatly influenced the subject and story told in the popular novel ''[[Investiture of the Gods]]''.

====Founding of the Zhōu dynasty====
The origins of the Ji dynastic founding family of the [[Zhōu dynasty]] is replete with mythological material, going back to its legendary founder [[Houji]] (who was originally named Qi, but a different Qi than the Shang founder known as Xie or Qi). Myths about Houji include those of his mythical origins, of which there are two main myths. The end of the Shang overlaps the rise of the Zhōu, so there is shared material. Once established, the Zhōu were characterized by their volume of literature, in the beginning much of it justifying their overthrow of the Shang. However, it was not long before much historical material appeared, of a rational, rationalized, philosophical, or otherwise non-mythological nature.

=====Bagua=====
{{Main|Bagua}}

One of the main legacies of the rise of Zhou was the dissemination of the classic book ''[[I Ching]]'', however the eight trigrams must be from a far earlier period than [[King Wen of Zhou|Wengong]], and even more than the editing and commentary by Confucius – mythology references the [[culture hero]] sometimes named [[Fuxi]].{{sfn|Legge|1963|loc=Introduction}}{{sfn|Siu|1968|loc="Preface" and "Introduction to the ''I Ching''"}}

===Subsequent dynasties===
Dynasties succeeding Zhou had notable mythological material, such as the accumulation of legend around the Jian'an transition between [[Han dynasty]] and the [[Three Kingdoms]] contention, reflected in the ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]''. From the [[Tang dynasty]] on, legends occur around the monk [[Xuanzang]]'s quest for Buddhist scriptures (sutras) from the area more-or-less corresponding to modern India, which influenced the [[Ming dynasty]] novel ''[[Journey to the West]]''.