Editing China (section)

== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Politics of China}}
{{See also|List of current Chinese provincial leaders}}<!-- Please add new information to relevant articles of the series. -->
{{multiple image
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| image1            = Great Hall Of The People At Night.JPG
| caption1          = The [[Great Hall of the People]]<br/>where the [[National People's Congress]] convenes
| image2            = Lascar Xinhua Gate (Xinhuamen) (4497575335).jpg
| caption2          = The [[Zhongnanhai]], headquarters of the [[State Council of the People's Republic of China|Chinese government]] and [[Chinese Communist Party]]
}}

The People's Republic of China is a [[one-party state]] governed by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The CCP describes itself as [[ideology of the Chinese Communist Party|guided]] by [[socialism with Chinese characteristics]], which is [[Chinese Marxist philosophy|Marxism adapted to Chinese circumstances]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 January 2013 |title=Xi reiterates adherence to socialism with Chinese characteristics |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2013-01/05/c_132082389.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201174945/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2013-01/05/c_132082389.htm |archive-date=1 February 2016 |access-date=14 January 2020 |agency=[[Xinhua News Agency]]}}</ref> The Chinese constitution states that the PRC "is a socialist state governed by a [[people's democratic dictatorship]] that is led by the working class and based on an alliance of workers and peasants", that the state institutions "shall practice the principle of [[democratic centralism]]",<ref name="Constitution">{{Cite web |date=20 November 2019 |title=Constitution of the People's Republic of China |url=http://www.npc.gov.cn/englishnpc/constitution2019/201911/1f65146fb6104dd3a2793875d19b5b29.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702212731/http://www.npc.gov.cn/englishnpc/constitution2019/201911/1f65146fb6104dd3a2793875d19b5b29.shtml |archive-date=2 July 2023 |access-date=20 March 2021 |website=[[National People's Congress]]}}</ref> and that "the defining feature of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party."<ref name="2018-amendments-translated">{{Cite web |last=Wei |first=Changhao |date=11 March 2018 |title=Annotated Translation: 2018 Amendment to the P.R.C. Constitution (Version 2.0) |url=https://npcobserver.com/2018/03/11/translation-2018-amendment-to-the-p-r-c-constitution |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222125439/https://npcobserver.com/2018/03/11/translation-2018-amendment-to-the-p-r-c-constitution |archive-date=22 December 2018 |access-date=22 August 2019 |website=NPC Observer}}</ref>

The PRC [[Democracy in China|officially terms itself as a democracy]], using terms such as [[whole-process people's democracy]].<ref name="Decoding China-2021" /> However, the country is commonly described as an authoritarian one-party state and a [[dictatorship]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ringen |first=Stein |author-link=Stein Ringen |title=The Perfect Dictatorship: China in the 21st Century |date=2016 |publisher=[[Hong Kong University Press]] |isbn=978-9-8882-0893-7 |page=3}}</ref><ref name="Isabelle">{{Cite news |last1=Qian |first1=Isabelle |last2=Xiao |first2=Muyi |last3=Mozur |first3=Paul |last4=Cardia |first4=Alexander |date=21 June 2022 |title=Four Takeaways From a Times Investigation Into China's Expanding Surveillance State |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/21/world/asia/china-surveillance-investigation.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116110333/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/21/world/asia/china-surveillance-investigation.html |archive-date=16 January 2023 |access-date=23 July 2022 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> with among the heaviest restrictions worldwide in many areas, most notably against [[Freedom of the press in China|freedom of the press]], [[freedom of assembly]], [[Non-governmental organization|free formation of social organizations]], [[Freedom of religion in China|freedom of religion]] and [[Internet censorship in China|free access to the Internet]].<ref name="freedomhouse">{{Cite news |date=2024 |title=Freedom in the World 2024: China |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/china/freedom-world/2024 |access-date=5 April 2024 |work=[[Freedom House]]}}</ref> China has consistently been ranked amongst the lowest as an "authoritarian regime" by the [[Economist Intelligence Unit]]'s [[The Economist Democracy Index|Democracy Index]], ranking at 145th out of 167 countries in 2024.<ref>{{Cite news |date=27 February 2025 |title=The global democracy index: how did countries perform in 2024? |url=https://www.economist.com/interactive/democracy-index-2024 |access-date=27 February 2025 |newspaper=[[The Economist]]}}</ref> Other sources suggest that terming China as "authoritarian" does not sufficiently account for the multiple consultation mechanisms that exist in Chinese government.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Laikwan |first=Pang |title=One and All: The Logic of Chinese Sovereignty |date=2024 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-1-5036-3881-5 |location=Stanford, CA |pages=1}}</ref>

=== Chinese Communist Party ===
{{Main|Chinese Communist Party}}
[[File:18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China.jpg|thumb|The [[Chinese Communist Party]] is the founding and governing political party of the People's Republic of China.]]
According to the [[Constitution of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP constitution]], its highest body is the [[National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party|National Congress]] held every five years.<ref name="Ruwitch-2022">{{Cite news |last=Ruwitch |first=John |date=13 October 2022 |title=China's major party congress is set to grant Xi Jinping a 3rd term. And that's not all |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/10/13/1124553497/china-communist-party-congress-xi-jinping |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221014193045/https://www.npr.org/2022/10/13/1124553497/china-communist-party-congress-xi-jinping |archive-date=14 October 2022 |access-date=15 October 2022 |work=[[NPR]]}}</ref> The National Congress elects the [[Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party|Central Committee]], who then elects the party's [[Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party|Politburo]], [[Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party|Politburo Standing Committee]] and the [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|general secretary]] ([[Leader of the Chinese Communist Party|party leader]]), the top leadership of the country.<ref name="Ruwitch-2022" /> The general secretary holds ultimate power and authority over party and state and serves as the informal [[paramount leader]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hernández |first=Javier C. |date=25 October 2017 |title=China's 'Chairman of Everything': Behind Xi Jinping's Many Titles |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/25/world/asia/china-xi-jinping-titles-chairman.html |url-access=limited |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025074641/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/25/world/asia/china-xi-jinping-titles-chairman.html |archive-date=25 October 2017 |access-date=14 January 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |quote=Mr. Xi's most important title is general secretary, the most powerful position in the Communist Party. In China's one party system, this ranking gives him virtually unchecked authority over the government.}}</ref> The current general secretary is [[Xi Jinping]], who took office on 15 November 2012.<ref name="PhillipsGuardian2">{{Cite news |last=Phillips |first=Tom |date=24 October 2017 |title=Xi Jinping becomes most powerful leader since Mao with China's change to constitution |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/24/xi-jinping-mao-thought-on-socialism-china-constitution |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024053607/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/24/xi-jinping-mao-thought-on-socialism-china-constitution |archive-date=24 October 2017 |access-date=24 October 2017 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> At the local level, the [[Chinese Communist Party Committee Secretary|secretary of the CCP committee]] of a subdivision outranks the local government level; CCP committee secretary of a provincial division outranks the governor while the CCP committee secretary of a city outranks the mayor.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lawrence |first1=Susan V. |last2=Lee |first2=Mari Y. |date=24 November 2021 |title=China's Political System in Charts: A Snapshot Before the 20th Party Congress |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46977 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616104006/https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46977 |archive-date=16 June 2022 |access-date=20 December 2022 |website=[[Congressional Research Service]]}}</ref>

=== Government ===
{{Main|Government of China}}

{{See also|List of national leaders of the People's Republic of China}}
{{multiple image
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| image1            = 习近平 Xi Jinping 20221023 02.jpg
| caption1          = [[Xi Jinping]]<br/><small>[[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP General Secretary]]
and [[President of China|President]]</small>
| width1            = 120
| image2            = 李强 Li Qiang 20221023.jpg
| caption2          = [[Li Qiang]]<br/><small>[[Premier of China|Premier]]</small>
| width2            = 120
| image3            = 赵乐际 Zhao Leji 20221023.jpg
| caption3          = [[Zhao Leji]]<br/><small>[[Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress|Congress Chairman]]</small>
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| image4            = 王沪宁 Wang Huning 20221023.jpg
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| caption4          = [[Wang Huning]]<br/><small>[[Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference|CPPCC Chairman]]</small>
}}

The government in China is under the sole control of the CCP.<ref name=":12">{{Cite news |last=Ma |first=Josephine |date=17 May 2021 |title=Party-state relations under China's Communist Party: separation of powers, control over government and reforms |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3133672/why-chinas-communist-party-inseparable-state |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528070726/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3133672/why-chinas-communist-party-inseparable-state |archive-date=28 May 2023 |access-date=23 June 2023 |work=[[South China Morning Post]]}}</ref> The CCP controls appointments in government bodies, with most senior government officials being CCP members.<ref name=":12" />

The [[National People's Congress]] (NPC), with nearly 3,000-members, is constitutionally the "[[highest organ of state power]]",<ref name="Constitution" /> though it has been also described as a "[[rubber stamp (politics)|rubber stamp]]" body.<ref name="BBC News-2009">{{Cite news |title=How China is Ruled: National People's Congress |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/in_depth/china_politics/government/html/7.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413113056/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/in_depth/china_politics/government/html/7.stm |archive-date=13 April 2020 |access-date=14 July 2009 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> The NPC meets annually, while the [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress|NPC Standing Committee]], around 150 members elected from NPC delegates, meets every couple of months.<ref name="BBC News-2009" /> Elections are indirect and not pluralistic, with nominations at all levels being controlled by the CCP.<ref name="Decoding China-2021">{{Cite web |date=4 February 2021 |title=Democracy |url=https://decodingchina.eu/democracy |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816041118/https://decodingchina.eu/democracy |archive-date=16 August 2022 |access-date=22 August 2022 |website=Decoding China |publisher=[[Heidelberg University]]}}</ref> The NPC is dominated by the CCP, with another [[Democratic parties (China)|eight minor parties]] having nominal representation under the condition of upholding CCP leadership.<ref name="HRW-2021">{{Cite web |title=China: Nipped In The Bud – Background |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2000/china/china009-01.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416135228/https://www.hrw.org/reports/2000/china/china009-01.htm |archive-date=16 April 2021 |access-date=18 March 2021 |website=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref>

The [[President of China|president]] is elected by the NPC. The presidency is the ceremonial state representative, but not the constitutional head of state. The incumbent president is Xi Jinping, who is also the general secretary of the CCP and the [[Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China)|chairman of the Central Military Commission]], making him China's [[paramount leader]] and [[Supreme command of the armed forces in the People's Republic of China|supreme commander]] of the Armed Forces. The [[Premier of China|premier]] is the [[head of government]], with [[Li Qiang]] being the incumbent. The premier is officially nominated by the president and then elected by the NPC, and has generally been either the second- or third-ranking member of the Politburo Standing Committee (PSC). The premier presides over the [[State Council of China|State Council]], China's cabinet, composed of four vice premiers, [[State councillor|state councilors]], and the heads of ministries and commissions.<ref name="Constitution" /> The [[Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference]] (CPPCC) is a political advisory body that is critical in China's "[[United Front (China)|united front]]" system, which aims to gather non-CCP voices to support the CCP. Similar to the people's congresses, CPPCC's exist at various division, with the [[National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference|National Committee of the CPPCC]] being chaired by [[Wang Huning]], fourth-ranking member of the PSC.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tiezzi |first=Shannon |date=4 March 2021 |title=What Is the CPPCC Anyway? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/03/what-is-the-cppcc-anyway |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328020922/https://thediplomat.com/2021/03/what-is-the-cppcc-anyway |archive-date=28 March 2024 |access-date=21 August 2022 |work=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]]}}</ref>

The governance of China is characterized by a high degree of political centralization but significant economic decentralization.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Jin |first=Keyu |author-link=Keyu Jin |title=The New China Playbook: Beyond Socialism and Capitalism |date=2023 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-1-9848-7828-1}}</ref>{{Rp|page=7}} Policy instruments or processes are often tested locally before being applied more widely, resulting in a policy that involves experimentation and feedback.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heilmann |first=Sebastian |author-link=Sebastian Heilmann |title=Red Swan: How Unorthodox Policy-Making Facilitated China's Rise |date=2018 |publisher=[[The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press]] |isbn=978-9-6299-6827-4}}</ref>{{Rp|page=14}} Generally, central government leadership refrains from drafting specific policies, instead using the informal networks and site visits to affirm or suggest changes to the direction of local policy experiments or pilot programs.<ref name=":44">{{Cite book |last=Brussee |first=Vincent |title=Social Credit: The Warring States of China's Emerging Data Empire |date=2023 |publisher=[[Palgrave MacMillan]] |isbn=978-9-8199-2188-1}}</ref>{{Rp|page=71}} The typical approach is that central government leadership begins drafting formal policies, law, or regulations after policy has been developed at local levels.<ref name=":44" />{{Rp|page=71}}

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Administrative divisions of China|Districts of Hong Kong|Municipalities and parishes of Macau}}

The PRC is constitutionally a [[unitary state]] divided into 23 [[Provinces of China|provinces]],{{efn|The People's Republic of China claims the islands of [[Geography of Taiwan|Taiwan]] and [[Penghu]], which it does not control, as its disputed 23rd province, i.e. [[Taiwan Province, People's Republic of China|Taiwan Province]]; along with [[Kinmen]] and [[Matsu Islands]] as part of [[Fujian|Fujian Province]]. These are controlled by the Taipei-based [[Taiwan|Republic of China]] (ROC). See {{section link||Administrative divisions}} for more details.|name=TaiwanClaim}} five [[Autonomous regions of China|autonomous regions]] (each with a designated minority group), and four [[Direct-administered municipality|direct-administered municipalities]]—collectively referred to as "mainland China"—as well as the [[Special administrative regions of China|special administrative regions]] (SARs) of Hong Kong and Macau.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 August 2014 |title=Administrative Division |url=http://english.www.gov.cn/archive/china_abc/2014/08/27/content_281474983873401.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709144054/http://english.www.gov.cn/archive/china_abc/2014/08/27/content_281474983873401.htm |archive-date=9 July 2022 |access-date=19 December 2022 |website=[[State Council of the People's Republic of China]]}}</ref> The PRC regards the [[Geography of Taiwan|island of Taiwan]] as its [[Taiwan Province, People's Republic of China|Taiwan Province]], [[Kinmen]] and [[Matsu Islands|Matsu]] as a part of [[Fujian|Fujian Province]] and islands the ROC controls in the South China Sea as a part of [[Hainan|Hainan Province]] and [[Guangdong|Guangdong Province]], although all these territories are governed by the [[Taiwan|Republic of China]] (ROC).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chang |first=Bi-yu |title=Place, Identity, and National Imagination in Post-war Taiwan |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-3176-5812-2 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hgaUBwAAQBAJ&q=9781317658122&pg=PA58 35–40, 46–60]}}</ref><ref name="asia-34729538">{{Cite news |date=6 November 2015 |title=What's behind China-Taiwan tensions? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-34729538 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151107103125/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-34729538 |archive-date=7 November 2015 |access-date=10 November 2022 |work=[[BBC News]] |publisher=}}</ref> Geographically, all 31 provincial divisions of mainland China can be grouped into six regions: [[North China]], [[East China]], [[Southwestern China]], [[Northwestern China]], [[South Central China]], and [[Northeast China]].<ref name="Brown2013">{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Kerry |title=Contemporary China |date=2013 |publisher=Macmillan International Higher Education – University of Sydney |isbn=978-1-1372-8159-3 |page=7}}</ref>

{{PRC provinces big imagemap alt}}
{{PRC provinces small imagemap/province list}}

=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of China}}
[[File:Diplomatic relations of the People's Republic of China.svg|upright=1.4|thumb|Diplomatic relations of China]]

The PRC has diplomatic relations with 179 United Nation members states and maintains [[List of diplomatic missions of China|embassies in 174]]. {{As of|2024}}, China has one of the largest diplomatic networks of any country in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Diplomacy Index – Country Rank |url=https://globaldiplomacyindex.lowyinstitute.org/country_ranking |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225223052/https://globaldiplomacyindex.lowyinstitute.org/country_ranking |archive-date=25 February 2024 |access-date=26 February 2024 |website=[[Lowy Institute]]}}</ref> In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China (ROC) as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the [[United Nations Security Council]].<ref name="Ref_r">{{Cite news |last=Chang |first=Eddy |date=22 August 2004 |title=Perseverance will pay off at the UN |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2004/08/22/2003199768 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070806100002/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2004/08/22/2003199768 |archive-date=6 August 2007 |work=[[The Taipei Times]]}}</ref> It is a member of intergovernmental organizations including the [[G20]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=About G20 |url=https://www.g20.org/en/about-g20 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825160730/https://www.g20.org/en/about-g20 |archive-date=25 August 2023 |access-date=4 July 2023 |website=[[G20]]}}</ref> the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation|SCO]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 March 2023 |title=Riyadh joins Shanghai Cooperation Organization as ties with Beijing grow |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/riyadh-joins-shanghai-cooperation-organization-ties-with-beijing-grow-2023-03-29 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231011070851/https://www.reuters.com/world/riyadh-joins-shanghai-cooperation-organization-ties-with-beijing-grow-2023-03-29 |archive-date=11 October 2023 |access-date=22 November 2023 |work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> the [[BRICS]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 April 2011 |title=Bric summit ends in China with plea for more influence |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-13076229 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225211238/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-13076229 |archive-date=25 February 2024 |access-date=24 October 2011 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> the [[East Asia Summit]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=EAS Participating Countries |url=https://eastasiasummit.asean.org/eas-participating-country |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923192301/https://eastasiasummit.asean.org/eas-participating-country |archive-date=23 September 2023 |access-date=4 July 2023 |website=[[East Asia Summit]]}}</ref> and the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 2021 |title=About APEC |url=https://www.apec.org/about-us/about-apec |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240321185610/https://www.apec.org/about-us/about-apec |archive-date=21 March 2024 |access-date=4 July 2023 |website=[[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]]}}</ref> China was also a former member and leader of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], and still considers itself an advocate for [[developing countries]].<ref name="Ref_2009">{{Cite news |date=21 December 2009 |title=China says communication with other developing countries at Copenhagen summit transparent |url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90883/6847341.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091222225359/http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90883/6847341.html |archive-date=22 December 2009 |access-date=31 January 2019 |work=[[People's Daily]]}}</ref>



The PRC officially maintains the [[One China|one-China principle]], which holds the view that there is only one sovereign state in the name of China, represented by the PRC, and that Taiwan is part of that China.<ref name="Drun-2017">{{Cite web |last=Drun |first=Jessica |date=28 December 2017 |title=One China, Multiple Interpretations |url=https://www.ccpwatch.org/single-post/2017/12/29/one-china-multiple-interpretations |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200309224301/https://www.ccpwatch.org/single-post/2017/12/29/One-China-Multiple-Interpretations |archive-date=9 March 2020 |access-date=11 January 2023 |website=Center for Advanced China Research}}</ref> The unique status of Taiwan has led to countries recognizing the PRC to maintain unique "one-China policies" that differ from each other; some countries explicitly recognize the PRC's claim over Taiwan, while others, including the U.S. and Japan, only ''acknowledge'' the claim.<ref name="Drun-2017" /> Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan,<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 January 2010 |title=Taiwan's Ma to stopover in US: report |url=http://www.mysinchew.com/node/33834 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150909170723/http://www.mysinchew.com/node/33834 |archive-date=9 September 2015 |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]}}</ref> especially in the matter of armament sales.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Macartney |first=Jane |date=1 February 2010 |title=China says US arms sales to Taiwan could threaten wider relations |url=https://www.thetimes.com/world/us-world/article/china-says-us-arms-sales-to-taiwan-could-threaten-wider-relations-pl2j2pdn667 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230712030509/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/china-says-us-arms-sales-to-taiwan-could-threaten-wider-relations-pl2j2pdn667 |archive-date=12 July 2023 |access-date=18 January 2020 |work=[[The Times]]}}</ref> Most countries have switched recognition from the ROC to the PRC since the latter replaced the former in the UN in 1971.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hale |first=Erin |date=25 October 2021 |title=Taiwan taps on United Nations' door, 50 years after departure |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/25/chinas-un-seat-50-years-on |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129190345/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/25/chinas-un-seat-50-years-on |archive-date=29 January 2023 |access-date=11 January 2023 |work=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]]}}</ref>

Much of current [[Foreign policy of China|Chinese foreign policy]] is reportedly based on Premier [[Zhou Enlai]]'s [[Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence]], and is also driven by the concept of "harmony without uniformity", which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences.<ref name="Keith">{{Cite book |last=Keith |first=Ronald C. |title=China from the inside out – fitting the People's republic into the world |publisher=PlutoPress |pages=135–136}}</ref> This policy may have led China to support or maintain close ties with states that are [[rogue state|regarded as dangerous]] and repressive by Western nations, such as [[China–Sudan relations|Sudan]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Timothy Webster |date=17 May 2013 |title=China's Human Rights Footprint in Africa |url=https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1619&context=faculty_publications |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229040705/https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1619&context=faculty_publications |archive-date=29 February 2024 |access-date=28 March 2024 |website=[[Case Western Reserve University School of Law]] |pages=628 and 638}}</ref> [[China–North Korea relations|North Korea]] and [[China–Iran relations|Iran]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Martel |first=William C. |date=29 June 2012 |title=An Authoritarian Axis Rising? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2012/06/an-authoritarian-axis-rising |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216045110/https://thediplomat.com/2012/06/an-authoritarian-axis-rising |archive-date=16 December 2013 |work=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]]}}</ref> China's close relationship with [[China–Myanmar relations|Myanmar]] has involved support for its ruling governments as well as for its ethnic rebel groups,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Maria Siow |date=27 March 2021 |title=Could Myanmar's ethnic armed groups turn the tide against the junta, with a little help from Beijing? |url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/3127236/could-myanmars-ethnic-armed-groups-turn-tide-against-junta |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231127152703/https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/3127236/could-myanmars-ethnic-armed-groups-turn-tide-against-junta |archive-date=27 November 2023 |access-date=27 November 2023 |website=[[South China Morning Post]] |language=en}}</ref> including the [[Arakan Army]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=DAVID BREWSTER |date=8 November 2022 |title=How China, India and Bangladesh could be drawn into Myanmar's conflict |url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/how-china-india-bangladesh-could-be-drawn-myanmar-s-conflict |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240224140842/https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/how-china-india-bangladesh-could-be-drawn-myanmar-s-conflict |archive-date=24 February 2024 |access-date=28 March 2024 |website=[[Lowy Institute]] |language=en}}</ref> China has a [[China–Russia relations|close political, economic and military relationship]] with Russia,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Davidson |first=Helen |date=16 March 2022 |title=How close are China and Russia and where does Beijing stand on Ukraine? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/16/how-close-are-china-and-russia-and-where-does-beijing-stand-on-ukraine |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322172321/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/16/how-close-are-china-and-russia-and-where-does-beijing-stand-on-ukraine |archive-date=22 March 2022 |access-date=11 January 2023 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> and the two states often vote in unison in the UN Security Council.<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 June 2012 |title=Energy to dominate Russia President Putin's China visit |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-18327632 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240214152040/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-18327632 |archive-date=14 February 2024 |access-date=16 January 2020 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Gladstone |first=Rick |date=19 July 2012 |title=Friction at the U.N. as Russia and China Veto Another Resolution on Syria Sanctions |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/20/world/middleeast/russia-and-china-veto-un-sanctions-against-syria.html |url-access=limited |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/20/world/middleeast/russia-and-china-veto-un-sanctions-against-syria.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |access-date=15 November 2012 |work=The New York Times}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=23 March 2013 |title=Xi Jinping: Russia-China ties 'guarantee world peace' |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-21911842 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120144520/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-21911842 |archive-date=20 January 2024 |access-date=23 March 2013 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> [[China–United States relations|China's relationship with the United States]] is complex, and includes deep trade ties but significant political differences.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Martin |first1=Eric |last2=Monteiro |first2=Ana |date=7 February 2023 |title=US-China Goods Trade Hits Record Even as Political Split Widens |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-02-07/us-china-trade-climbs-to-record-in-2022-despite-efforts-to-split |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502105302/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-02-07/us-china-trade-climbs-to-record-in-2022-despite-efforts-to-split |archive-date=2 May 2023 |access-date=16 May 2023 |work=[[Bloomberg News]]}}</ref>

Since the early 2000s, China has followed a policy of [[Sino-African relations|engaging with African nations]] for trade and bilateral co-operation.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McLaughlin |first=Abraham |date=30 March 2005 |title=A rising China counters US clout in Africa |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0330/p01s01-woaf.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070816123236/http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0330/p01s01-woaf.html |archive-date=16 August 2007 |access-date=18 January 2020 |work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lyman |first=Princeton |date=21 July 2005 |title=China's Rising Role in Africa |url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/8436 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715183929/http://www.cfr.org/publication/8436 |archive-date=15 July 2007 |access-date=26 June 2007 |website=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Politzer |first=Malia |date=6 August 2008 |title=China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration |url=https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/china-and-africa-stronger-economic-ties-mean-more-migration |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202014823/https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/china-and-africa-stronger-economic-ties-mean-more-migration |archive-date=2 December 2023 |access-date=26 January 2013 |website=[[Migration Policy Institute]]}}</ref> It maintains extensive and highly diversified trade links with the European Union, and became its largest trading partner for goods.<ref name="qz_EU_trade">{{Cite news |last=Timsit |first=Annabelle |date=15 February 2021 |title=China dethroned the US as Europe's top trade partner in 2020 |url=https://qz.com/1973067/china-dethroned-the-us-as-europes-top-trade-partner-in-2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002082249/https://qz.com/1973067/china-dethroned-the-us-as-europes-top-trade-partner-in-2020 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |access-date=18 March 2021 |work=Quartz}}</ref> China is increasing its influence in [[Central Asia]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wolff |first=Stefan |date=24 May 2023 |title=How China is increasing its influence in central Asia as part of global plans to offer an alternative to the west |url=https://theconversation.com/how-china-is-increasing-its-influence-in-central-asia-as-part-of-global-plans-to-offer-an-alternative-to-the-west-206035 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303040833/http://theconversation.com/how-china-is-increasing-its-influence-in-central-asia-as-part-of-global-plans-to-offer-an-alternative-to-the-west-206035 |archive-date=3 March 2024 |access-date=28 March 2024 |website=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]}}</ref> and South Pacific.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Owen Greene |last2=Christoph Bluth |date=9 February 2024 |title=China's increasing political influence in the south Pacific has sparked an international response |url=https://theconversation.com/chinas-increasing-political-influence-in-the-south-pacific-has-sparked-an-international-response-222105 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303175200/https://theconversation.com/chinas-increasing-political-influence-in-the-south-pacific-has-sparked-an-international-response-222105 |archive-date=3 March 2024 |access-date=28 March 2024 |website=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]}}</ref> The country has strong trade ties with [[ASEAN]] countries<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 2022 |title=ASEAN Statistical Yearbook 2022 |url=https://www.aseanstats.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/ASYB_2022_423.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516144951/https://www.aseanstats.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/ASYB_2022_423.pdf |archive-date=16 May 2023 |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=ASEAN}}</ref> and major South American economies,<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=4 February 2021 |title=The U.S. and China Are Battling for Influence in Latin America, and the Pandemic Has Raised the Stakes |url=https://time.com/5936037/us-china-latin-america-influence |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240323123844/https://time.com/5936037/us-china-latin-america-influence |archive-date=23 March 2024 |access-date=28 March 2021 |magazine=Time}}</ref> and is the largest trading partner of Brazil, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, Argentina, and several others.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Garrison |first=Cassandra |date=14 December 2020 |title=In Latin America, a Biden White House faces a rising China |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-latam-usa-china-insight/in-latin-america-a-biden-white-house-faces-a-rising-china-idUSKBN28O18R |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231108025932/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-latam-usa-china-insight/in-latin-america-a-biden-white-house-faces-a-rising-china-idUSKBN28O18R |archive-date=8 November 2023 |access-date=28 March 2021 |work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref>

In 2013, China initiated the [[Belt and Road Initiative]] (BRI), a large global infrastructure building initiative with funding on the order of $50–100 billion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dollar |first=David |date=October 2020 |title=Seven years into China's Belt and Road |url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/10/01/seven-years-into-chinas-belt-and-road |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530150820/https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/10/01/seven-years-into-chinas-belt-and-road |archive-date=30 May 2023 |access-date=1 December 2020 |website=Brookings}}</ref> BRI could be one of the largest development plans in modern history.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cai |first=Peter |title=Understanding China's Belt and Road Initiative |url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/publications/understanding-belt-and-road-initiative |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901063800/http://www.lowyinstitute.org/publications/understanding-belt-and-road-initiative |archive-date=1 September 2022 |access-date=30 November 2020 |website=[[Lowy Institute]]}}</ref> It expanded significantly over the next six years and, {{As of|2020|April|lc=y}}, included 138 countries and 30 international organizations. In addition to intensifying foreign policy relations, the focus is particularly on building efficient transport routes, especially the [[21st Century Maritime Silk Road|maritime Silk Road]] with its connections to East Africa and Europe. However many loans made under the program are unsustainable and China has faced a number of calls for [[debt relief]] from debtor nations.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Kynge |first1=James |author-link=James Kynge |last2=Sun |first2=Yu |date=30 April 2020 |title=China faces wave of calls for debt relief on 'Belt and Road' projects |url=https://www.ft.com/content/5a3192be-27c6-4fe7-87e7-78d4158bd39b |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/5a3192be-27c6-4fe7-87e7-78d4158bd39b |archive-date=10 December 2022 |access-date=28 October 2022 |work=[[Financial Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Broadman |first=Harry G. |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10986/7186 |title=Africa's Silk Road: China and India's New Economic Frontier |date=2007 |publisher=World Bank |isbn=978-0-8213-6835-0 |hdl=10986/7186 |access-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160049/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/entities/publication/ba2454cc-7c86-58e3-b0ad-c9b0968b70eb |archive-date=28 March 2024 |url-status=live}}

* {{Cite book |author1=Wolf D. Hartmann |title=Chinas neue Seidenstraße Kooperation statt Isolation – der Rollentausch im Welthandel |author2=Wolfgang Maennig |author3=Run Wang |publisher=Frankfurter Allgemeine Buch |date=2017 |isbn=978-3-9560-1224-2 |page=59}}
* {{Cite book |first=Marcus |last=Hernig |title=Die Renaissance der Seidenstrasse : der Weg des chinesischen Drachens ins Herz Europas |publisher=FinanzBuch Verlag (FBV) |date=2018 |isbn=978-3-9597-2138-7 |page=112}}
* {{Cite journal |first=Harry |last=de Wilt |date=17 December 2019 |title=Is 'One Belt, One Road' a China Crisis for North Sea Main Ports? |url=https://www.worldcargonews.com/news/news/is-one-belt-one-road-a-china-crisis-for-north-sea-main-ports-63544 |journal=World Cargo News |volume=17 |url-access=registration |access-date=16 October 2023 |archive-date=18 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231018024445/https://www.worldcargonews.com/news/news/is-one-belt-one-road-a-china-crisis-for-north-sea-main-ports-63544 |url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite journal |first=Guido |last=Santevecchi |date=November 2019 |title=Di Maio e la Via della Seta: «Faremo i conti nel 2020», siglato accordo su Trieste |url=https://www.informazione.it/a/F44F3D8B-F9F0-4058-B30F-8799E0A22A01/Di-Maio-e-la-Via-della-Seta-Faremo-i-conti-nel-2020-siglato-accordo-su-Trieste |journal=Corriere della Sera |volume=5 |access-date=28 March 2024 |archive-date=18 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231018024550/https://www.informazione.it/a/F44F3D8B-F9F0-4058-B30F-8799E0A22A01/Di-Maio-e-la-Via-della-Seta-Faremo-i-conti-nel-2020-siglato-accordo-su-Trieste |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Military ===
{{Main|People's Liberation Army|Paramilitary forces of China}}
[[File:J-20 at Airshow China 2016.jpg|thumb|[[Chengdu J-20]] [[Fifth-generation fighter|5th generation]] stealth fighter]]

The [[People's Liberation Army]] (PLA) is considered one of the world's most powerful militaries and has rapidly modernized in the recent decades.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Maizland |first=Lindsay |date=5 February 2020 |title=China's Modernizing Military |url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/chinas-modernizing-military |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814144248/https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/chinas-modernizing-military |archive-date=14 August 2022 |access-date=14 August 2022 |website=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]}}</ref> Since 2024, it consists of four services: the [[People's Liberation Army Ground Force|Ground Force]] (PLAGF), the [[People's Liberation Army Navy|Navy]] (PLAN), the [[People's Liberation Army Air Force|Air Force]] (PLAAF) and the [[People's Liberation Army Rocket Force|Rocket Force]] (PLARF). It also has four independent arms: the [[People's Liberation Army Aerospace Force|Aerospace Force]], the [[People's Liberation Army Cyberspace Force|Cyberspace Force]], the [[People's Liberation Army Information Support Force|Information Support Force]], and the [[People's Liberation Army Joint Logistics Support Force|Joint Logistics Support Force]], the first three of which were split from the disbanded [[People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force|Strategic Support Force]] (PLASSF).<ref name="ChinaMilitary">{{Cite web |title=Chinese PLA embraces a new system of services and arms: Defense spokesperson – China Military |url=http://eng.chinamil.com.cn/CHINA_209163/TopStories_209189/16302105.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240420125715/http://eng.chinamil.com.cn/CHINA_209163/TopStories_209189/16302105.html |archive-date=20 April 2024 |access-date=20 April 2024 |website=eng.chinamil.com.cn}}</ref> Its nearly 2.2 million active duty personnel is the [[List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel|largest in the world]]. The PLA holds the world's [[China and weapons of mass destruction|third-largest stockpile of nuclear weapons]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 September 2021 |title=Which Countries Have the Most Nuclear Weapons? |url=https://www.visualcapitalist.com/which-countries-have-the-most-nuclear-weapons/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810145116/https://www.visualcapitalist.com/which-countries-have-the-most-nuclear-weapons/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |access-date=27 November 2021 |publisher=Visual Capitalist}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=19 July 2018 |title=Chinese Nuclear Program |url=https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/chinese-nuclear-program |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806132531/https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/chinese-nuclear-program |archive-date=6 August 2020 |access-date=28 March 2024 |work=Atomic Heritage Foundation}}</ref> and the world's second-largest navy by tonnage.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lendon |first=Brad |date=6 March 2021 |title=Analysis: China has built the world's largest navy. Now what's Beijing going to do with it? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/03/05/china/china-world-biggest-navy-intl-hnk-ml-dst/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220810040902/https://www.cnn.com/2021/03/05/china/china-world-biggest-navy-intl-hnk-ml-dst/index.html |archive-date=10 August 2022 |access-date=14 August 2022 |work=CNN}}</ref> China's official military budget for 2024 totalled US$229 billion (1.67 trillion Yuan), the [[List of countries with highest military expenditures|second-largest in the world]], though [[SIPRI]] estimates that its real expenditure that year was US$314 billion, making up 12% of global military spending and accounting for 1.7% of the country's GDP.'''''<ref name="SIPRI-2020">{{Cite web |date=April 2025 |title=Trends in Military Expenditure 2024 |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2025-04/2504_fs_milex_2024.pdf#page=2 |access-date=28 April 2025 |publisher=[[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]]}}</ref>''''' According to SIPRI, its military spending from 2012 to 2021 averaged US$215 billion per year or 1.7 per cent of GDP, behind only the United States at US$734 billion per year or 3.6 per cent of GDP.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SIPRI Military Expenditure Database |url=https://milex.sipri.org/sipri |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221108022107/https://milex.sipri.org/sipri |archive-date=8 November 2022 |access-date=28 March 2024 |publisher=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute}}</ref> The PLA is commanded by the [[Central Military Commission (China)|Central Military Commission]] (CMC) of the party and the state; though officially two separate organizations, the two CMCs have identical membership except during leadership transition periods and effectively function as one organization. The [[Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China)|chairman of the CMC]] is the [[Supreme Military Command of the People's Republic of China|commander-in-chief]] of the PLA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What China's New Central Military Commission Tells Us About Xi's Military Strategy |url=https://asiasociety.org/policy-institute/what-chinas-new-central-military-commission-tells-us-about-xis-military-strategy |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221094427/https://asiasociety.org/policy-institute/what-chinas-new-central-military-commission-tells-us-about-xis-military-strategy |archive-date=21 December 2022 |access-date=21 December 2022 |website=Asia Society|date=27 October 2022 }}</ref>

=== Sociopolitical issues and human rights ===
{{See also|Human rights in China|Hukou|Social welfare in China|Elections in China|Censorship in China|Persecution of Uyghurs in China}}The situation of [[human rights in China]] has attracted significant criticism from foreign governments, foreign press agencies, and non-governmental organizations, alleging widespread civil rights violations such as detention without trial, forced confessions, torture, restrictions of fundamental rights, and [[Capital punishment in China|excessive use of the death penalty]].<ref name="freedomhouse" /><ref name="Amnesty-2023">{{Cite web |title=China |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/east-asia/china |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515180810/https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/east-asia/china |archive-date=15 May 2023 |access-date=15 May 2023 |publisher=[[Amnesty International]]}}</ref> Since its inception, [[Freedom House]] has ranked China as "not free" in its ''[[Freedom in the World]]'' survey,<ref name="freedomhouse" /> while [[Amnesty International]] has documented significant human rights abuses.<ref name="Amnesty-2023" /> The Chinese constitution states that the "fundamental rights" of citizens include [[freedom of speech]], [[freedom of the press]], the [[right to a fair trial]], [[freedom of religion]], [[universal suffrage]], and [[property|property rights]]. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the state.<ref name="books.google">{{Cite book |last=Sorman |first=Guy |title=Empire of Lies: The Truth About China in the Twenty-First Century |date=2008 |publisher=[[Encounter Books]] |isbn=978-1-5940-3284-4 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aRaLevXMZf4C&pg=PA46 46, 152]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=World Report 2022: China |date=2 December 2021 |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |chapter=China: Events of 2021 |access-date=15 May 2023 |chapter-url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022/country-chapters/china-and-tibet |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517074437/https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022/country-chapters/china-and-tibet |archive-date=17 May 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> China has limited protections regarding [[LGBT rights in China|LGBT rights]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 June 2023 |title=For China's LGBTQ community, safe spaces are becoming harder to find |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/china-beijing-lgbt-center-rcna85528 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119214528/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/china-beijing-lgbt-center-rcna85528 |archive-date=19 January 2024 |access-date=8 August 2023 |publisher=NBC News}}</ref>

[[File:Xinjiang Internment Map, US-Aus Gov Assessment.jpg|thumb|In [[Xinjiang]], China has been accused of committing genocide against Uyghurs and detaining more than one million [[Uyghurs]] and other ethnic minorities in camps.<ref name="BBC News-2021">{{Cite news |date=8 February 2021 |title=Uighurs: 'Credible case' China carrying out genocide |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55973215 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210208184814/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55973215 |archive-date=8 February 2021 |access-date=8 February 2021 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref>]]Although some criticisms of government policies and the ruling CCP are tolerated, censorship of political speech and information are amongst the harshest in the world and routinely used to prevent collective action.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=King |first1=Gary |last2=Pan |first2=Jennifer |last3=Roberts |first3=Margaret E. |date=May 2013 |title=How Censorship in China Allows Government Criticism but Silences Collective Expression |url=http://gking.harvard.edu/files/gking/files/censored.pdf |url-status=live |journal=American Political Science Review |volume=107 |issue=2 |pages=326–343 |doi=10.1017/S0003055413000014 |s2cid=53577293 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://gking.harvard.edu/files/gking/files/censored.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |access-date=6 March 2015 |quote=Our central theoretical finding is that, contrary to much research and commentary, the purpose of the censorship program is not to suppress criticism of the state or the Communist Party.}}</ref> China also has the most comprehensive and sophisticated Internet censorship regime in the world, with numerous websites being blocked.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=Freedom on the Net: 2022 |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/china/freedom-net/2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230123114002/https://freedomhouse.org/country/china/freedom-net/2022 |archive-date=23 January 2023 |access-date=15 May 2023 |website=[[Freedom House]]}}</ref> The government suppresses popular protests and demonstrations that it considers a potential threat to "social stability".<ref>Christian Göbel and Lynette H. Ong, [https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Asia/1012ecran_gobelong.pdf "Social unrest in China." ''Long Briefing, Europe China Research and Academic Network (ECRAN)'' (2012) p 18] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116150236/https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Asia/1012ecran_gobelong.pdf |date=16 January 2021}}. [[Chatham House]]</ref> China additionally uses a massive surveillance network of cameras, facial recognition software, sensors, and surveillance of personal technology as a means of social control of persons living in the country.<ref name="Isabelle"/>

[[File:Hong Kong anti-extradition bill protest (48108594957).jpg|thumb|[[2019–20 Hong Kong protests]]]]
China is regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses in [[Human rights in Tibet|Tibet]] and Xinjiang,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anna Morcom |date=June 2018 |title=The Political Potency of Tibetan Identity in Pop Music and Dunglen |url=https://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2348&context=himalaya |url-status=live |journal=Himalaya |publisher=[[Royal Holloway, University of London]] |volume=38 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002090307/https://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2348&context=himalaya |archive-date=2 October 2021 |access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=7 November 2011 |title=Dalai Lama hits out over burnings |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-15617026 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191103141911/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-15617026 |archive-date=3 November 2019 |access-date=28 March 2024 |work=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Asat |first1=Rayhan |last2=Yonah Diamond |date=15 July 2020 |title=The World's Most Technologically Sophisticated Genocide Is Happening in Xinjiang |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/07/15/uighur-genocide-xinjiang-china-surveillance-sterilization |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328004458/https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/07/15/uighur-genocide-xinjiang-china-surveillance-sterilization |archive-date=28 March 2024 |access-date=28 March 2024 |website=[[Foreign Policy]]}}</ref> where significant numbers of ethnic minorities reside, including violent police crackdowns and [[religious suppression]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hatton |first=Celia |date=27 June 2013 |title=China 'moves two million Tibetans' |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-23081653 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229053404/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-23081653 |archive-date=29 February 2024 |access-date=27 June 2013 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 June 2013 |title=Fresh unrest hits China's Xinjiang |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-23112177 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120125125/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-23112177 |archive-date=20 January 2024 |access-date=29 June 2013 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> Since 2017, the Chinese government has been engaged in a harsh crackdown in Xinjiang, with around one million [[Uyghurs]] and other ethnic and religion minorities being detained in [[Xinjiang internment camps|internment camps]] aimed at changing the political thinking of detainees, their identities, and their religious beliefs.<ref name="Graham-Harrison-2019">{{Cite news |last1=Graham-Harrison |first1=Emma |last2=Garside |first2=Juliette |date=24 November 2019 |title='Allow no escapes': leak exposes reality of China's vast prison camp network |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/nov/24/china-cables-leak-no-escapes-reality-china-uighur-prison-camp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314114513/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/nov/24/china-cables-leak-no-escapes-reality-china-uighur-prison-camp |archive-date=14 March 2024 |access-date=18 January 2020 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> According to Western reports, political indoctrination, torture, [[Physical abuse|physical]] and [[Psychological abuse|psychological]] abuse, [[Compulsory sterilization|forced sterilization]], [[sexual abuse]], and [[Forced labour|forced labor]] are common in these facilities.<ref name="Khatchadourian-2021">{{Cite magazine |last=Khatchadourian |first=Raffi |date=5 April 2021 |title=Surviving the Crackdown in Xinjiang |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/04/12/surviving-the-crackdown-in-xinjiang |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210410193233/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/04/12/surviving-the-crackdown-in-xinjiang |archive-date=10 April 2021 |access-date=19 March 2023 |magazine=[[The New Yorker]]}}</ref> According to a 2020 [[Foreign Policy]] report, China's treatment of Uyghurs meets the UN definition of genocide,<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 July 2020 |title=China Suppression Of Uighur Minorities Meets U.N. Definition Of Genocide, Report Says |url=https://www.npr.org/2020/07/04/887239225/china-suppression-of-uighur-minorities-meets-u-n-definition-of-genocide-report-s |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019141640/https://www.npr.org/2020/07/04/887239225/china-suppression-of-uighur-minorities-meets-u-n-definition-of-genocide-report-s |archive-date=19 October 2020 |access-date=28 September 2020 |publisher=[[NPR]]}}</ref> while a separate [[UN Human Rights Office report on Xinjiang|UN Human Rights Office report]] said they could potentially meet the definitions for [[crimes against humanity]].<ref name="Cumming-Bruce-2022">{{Cite news |last1=Cumming-Bruce |first1=Nick |last2=Ramzy |first2=Austin |date=31 August 2022 |title=U.N. Says China May Have Committed 'Crimes Against Humanity' in Xinjiang |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/31/world/asia/un-china-xinjiang-uyghurs.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901014137/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/31/world/asia/un-china-xinjiang-uyghurs.html |archive-date=1 September 2022 |access-date=1 September 2022 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> The Chinese authorities have also cracked down on dissent in [[Hong Kong]], especially after the passage of a [[2020 Hong Kong national security law|national security law]] in 2020.<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 June 2022 |title=Hong Kong national security law: What is it and is it worrying? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-52765838 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200528153554/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-52765838 |archive-date=28 May 2020 |access-date=12 August 2022 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref>

In 2017 and 2020, the [[Pew Research Center]] ranked the severity of Chinese government restrictions on religion as being among the world's highest, despite ranking religious-related social hostilities in China as low in severity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 July 2019 |title=3. Middle East still home to highest levels of restrictions on religion, although levels have declined since 2016 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2019/07/15/middle-east-still-home-to-highest-levels-of-restrictions-on-religion-although-levels-have-declined-since-2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106181144/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2019/07/15/middle-east-still-home-to-highest-levels-of-restrictions-on-religion-although-levels-have-declined-since-2016 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |access-date=6 January 2024 |website=[[Pew Research Center]] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 November 2022 |title=3. Small changes in median scores for government restrictions, social hostilities involving religion in 2020 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2022/11/29/small-changes-in-median-scores-for-government-restrictions-social-hostilities-involving-religion-in-2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106181143/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2022/11/29/small-changes-in-median-scores-for-government-restrictions-social-hostilities-involving-religion-in-2020 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |access-date=2 January 2024 |website=[[Pew Research Center]] |language=en-US}}</ref> The [[Global Slavery Index]] estimated that in 2016 more than 3.8 million people (0.25% of the population) were living in "conditions of modern [[Slavery in China|slavery]]", including victims of human trafficking, forced labor, forced marriage, child labor, and state-imposed forced labor. The state-imposed [[re-education through labor]] (''laojiao'') system was formally abolished in 2013, but it is not clear to what extent its practices have stopped.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016 |title=China |url=https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/country/china/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160706152456/https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/country/china/ |archive-date=6 July 2016 |access-date=13 March 2018 |website=[[Global Slavery Index]]}}</ref> The much larger [[Laogai|reform through labor]] (''laogai'') system includes labor prison factories, detention centers, and re-education camps; the [[Laogai Research Foundation]] has estimated in June 2008 that there were nearly 1,422 of these facilities, though it cautioned that this number was likely an underestimate.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008 |title=Laogai Handbook: 2007–2008 |url=https://laogairesearch.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/33-Laogai-Handbook-2007-08.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231225055906/https://laogairesearch.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/33-Laogai-Handbook-2007-08.pdf |archive-date=25 December 2023 |access-date=28 March 2024 |website=[[Laogai Research Foundation]]}}</ref>

=== Public views of government ===
Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor and government corruption.<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 May 2002 |title=China sounds alarm over fast growing gap between rich and poor |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-52919430.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140610060248/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-52919430.html |archive-date=10 June 2014 |access-date=1 February 2013 |agency=[[Associated Press]]}}</ref> Nonetheless, international surveys show the Chinese public have a high level of satisfaction with their government.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=137}} These views are generally attributed to the material comforts and security available to large segments of the Chinese populace as well as the government's attentiveness and responsiveness.<ref name=":0" /> {{Rp|page=136}} According to the [[World Values Survey]] (2022), 91% of Chinese respondents have significant confidence in their government.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=13}} A Harvard University survey published in July 2020 found that citizen satisfaction with the government had increased since 2003, also rating China's government as more effective and capable than ever in the survey's history.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zhao |first=Suisheng |title=The dragon roars back: transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy |date=2023 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-1-5036-3088-8 |page=163}}</ref>