Editing Carl Jung (section)

==Thought==
[[File:Jung Family.jpg|thumb|left|Jung's family c.&nbsp;1895: l to r. father Paul, sister Gertrud, mother Emilie and Carl]]
Jung's thought derived from the classical education he received at school and from early family influences, which on the maternal side were a combination of [[Calvinism|Reformed Protestant]] academic theology with an interest in occult phenomena. On his father's side was a dedication to academic discipline emanating from his grandfather, the physician, scientist, and first Basel Professor of Medicine, [[Karl Gustav Jung]], a one-time student activist and convert from Catholicism to Swiss Reformed Protestantism. Family lore suggested there was at least a social connection to the German [[polymath]], [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe]], through the latter's niece, Lotte Kestner, known as "Lottchen" who was a frequent visitor in Jung senior's household.<ref>Wehr, Gerhard. [https://archive.org/details/jungbiography0000wehr/page/14/ p. 14]. "Sophie Ziegler Jung was later friendly with Lotte Kestner, a niece of Goethe's 'Lottchen'. This Lotte frequently came to see my grandfather—as, incidentally, did Franz Liszt. In later years Lotte Kestner settled in Basel, no doubt because of these close ties with the Jung family."</ref>

Carl Jung, the practicing clinician, writer, and founder of analytical psychology, had, through his marriage, the economic security to pursue interests in other intellectual topics of the moment. His early celebrity as a research scientist through the Word Association Test led to the start of prolific correspondence and worldwide travel. It opened academic as well as social avenues, supported by his explorations into [[anthropology]], [[quantum physics]], [[vitalism]], [[Eastern philosophy|Eastern]] and [[Western philosophy]]. He delved into [[epistemology]], [[alchemy]], [[astrology]], and sociology, as well as literature and the arts. Jung's interest in philosophy and spiritual subjects led many to label him a mystic, although he preferred to be seen as a man of science. Jung, unlike Freud, was deeply knowledgeable about philosophical concepts and sought links between epistemology and emergent theories of psychology.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mlwi.magix.net/jungmetaphysic.htm|title=Jung's metaphysic and epistemology: Platonism or Phenomenology?|website=mlwi.magix.net}}</ref><ref name="Lachmanpage258">{{cite book|last=Lachman|first=Gary|title=Jung the Mystic|year=2010|publisher=Tarcher/Penguin|location=New York|isbn=978-1-58542-792-5|page=258}}</ref>

===Key concepts===
[[File:C. G. Jung institute.jpg|right|thumb|C. G. Jung Institute, [[Küsnacht]], Switzerland]]
Within the field of [[analytical psychology]], a brief survey of major concepts developed by Jung include (alphabetical):<ref>Anthony Stevens (1991) ''On Jung'' London: Penguin Books, pp. 27–53</ref>

* '''[[Anima and animus]]'''—(archetype) the contrasexual aspect of a person's psyche. In a woman's psyche, her inner personal masculine is conceived as a complex and an archetypal image; in a man's psyche, his inner personal feminine is conceived both as a complex and an archetypal image.
* '''[[Jungian archetypes|Archetype]]'''—a concept "borrowed" from [[anthropology]] to denote supposedly universal and recurring mental images or themes. Jung's descriptions of archetypes varied over time.
* '''[[Jungian archetypes|Archetypal images]]'''—universal symbols that mediate opposites in the psyche, often found in religious art, mythology, and fairy tales across cultures.
* '''[[Collective unconscious]]'''—aspects of unconsciousness experienced by all people in different cultures.
* '''[[Complex (psychology)|Complex]]'''—the repressed organisation of images and experiences that governs perception and behaviour.
* '''[[Extraversion and introversion]]'''—personality traits of degrees of openness or reserve contributing to [[psychological type]].<ref>Dicks-Mireaux, M. J. (1964). "Extraversion-Introversion in Experimental Psychology: Examples of Experimental Evidence and their Theoretical Explanations", ''Journal of Analytical Psychology'', 9, 2.</ref>
* '''[[Individuation]]'''—the process of fulfilment of each individual "which negates neither the conscious or unconscious position but does justice to them both".<ref>Anthony Stevens (1991) ''On Jung'' London: Penguin Books, p. 199.</ref>
* '''[[Interpersonal relationship]]'''—the way people relate to others is a reflection of the way they relate to their own selves. This may also be extended to relations with the natural environment.
* '''[[Numinous]]—'''a healing, transformative or destructive spiritual power. Also, an invisible power inherent in an object. Jung develops the concept from the work of [[Rudolf Otto]], who based it on the Latin ''[[numen]]'''.'''''
* '''[[Persona (psychology)|Persona]]'''—element of the personality that arises "for reasons of adaptation or personal convenience"—the "masks" one puts on in various situations.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://journalpsyche.org/jungian-model-psyche/|title=The Jungian Model of the Psyche|website=journalpsyche.org|access-date=11 January 2020}}</ref>
* '''[[Psychological Types|Psychological types]]'''—a framework for consciously orienting psychotherapists to patients by raising particular modes of personality to consciousness and differentiation between analyst and patient.
* '''[[Shadow (psychology)|Shadow]]'''—(archetype) the repressed, therefore unknown, aspects of the personality, including those often considered to be negative.
* '''[[Self in Jungian psychology|Self]]'''—(archetype) the central overarching concept governing the individuation process, as symbolised by mandalas, the union of male and female, totality, and unity. Jung viewed it as the psyche's central archetype.
* '''[[Synchronicity]]'''—an acausal principle as a basis for the apparently random concurrence of phenomena.<ref>Bright, George. (1997) "Synchronicity as a basis of analytic attitude", ''Journal of Analytical Psychology'', 42, 4</ref>

===Collective unconscious===
{{main|Collective unconscious}}
Since the establishment of [[psychoanalytic theory]], the notion and meaning of individuals having a [[personal unconscious|''personal'' unconscious]] has gradually come to be commonly accepted.  This was popularised by both Freud and Jung.  Whereas an individual's personal unconscious is made up of thoughts and emotions that have, at some time, been experienced or held in mind but which have been repressed or forgotten, in contrast, the ''collective'' unconscious is neither acquired by activities within an individual's life nor a container of things that are thoughts, memories or ideas which are capable of being conscious during one's life. The contents of it were never naturally "known" through physical or cognitive experience and then forgotten.

The collective unconscious consists of universal heritable elements common to all humans, distinct from other species.<ref>{{cite book |author=Carl Jung  |title=''The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious'', Collected Works, Volume 9, Part 1  |chapter=''Psychological Aspects of the Mother Archetype'' <!-- |year=1959 --> |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-01833-1 |at=para. 152 }}</ref> However, this does not necessarily imply a genetic cause. It encapsulates fields of evolutionary biology, history of civilization, ethnology, brain and nervous system development, and general psychological development.<ref name="CW9_1__90_92_118">{{cite book |author=Carl Jung  |title=''The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious'', Collected Works, Volume 9, Part 1 <!-- |year=1959 --> |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-01833-1 |at=para. 90-92,118 }}</ref> Considering its composition in practical physiological and psychological terms, "it consists of pre-existent forms, the archetypes, which can only become conscious secondarily and which give definite form to certain psychic contents."<ref name="CW9_1__90_92_118" />  Jung writes about causal factors in personal psychology as stemming from, influenced by an abstraction of the impersonal physical layer, the common and universal physiology among all humans.<ref name="CW9_1__91">{{cite book |author=Carl Jung  |title=''The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious'', Collected Works, Volume 9, Part 1 <!-- |year=1959 --> |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-01833-1 |at=para. 91 }}</ref> Jung considers that science would hardly deny the existence and basic nature of "instincts", existing as a whole set of motivating urges. The collective unconscious acts as the frame where science can distinguish individual motivating urges, thought to be universal across all individuals of the human species, while instincts are present in all species. Jung contends, "The hypothesis of the collective unconscious is, therefore, no more daring than to assume there are instincts."<ref name="CW9_1__90_92_118" />

====Archetype====
{{main|Jungian archetypes}}
{{image frame|content={{Photo montage
| right
| photo1a = Saturn Devouring His Son.jpg
| alt1a = Isis, The Great mother of divine son Horus 
| photo1b = Demeter Altemps Inv8546.jpg
| alt1b = Demeter, Great Mother of divine daughter Persephone
| photo1c = Zhang Lu-Laozi Riding an Ox.jpg
| alt1c = Lao Tzu, Wise Old Man
| photo1d = Spas vsederzhitel sinay.jpg
| alt1d = Christ, Hero
| size = 450
| spacing = 3
}}
| width = 450
| caption = Common archetypal motifs: Devourer, Great/Benevolent Mother, Wise Old Man, Hero/Self
}}
The archetype is a concept "borrowed" from [[anthropology]] to denote a process of nature.  Jung's definitions of archetypes varied over time and have been the subject of debate regarding their usefulness. [[Jungian archetypes|Archetypal images]], also referred to as [[Motif-Index of Folk-Literature|motifs in mythology]],{{Efn|Also see other [[Motif (disambiguation)#General concepts|general concepts of 'motif']] covering visual arts, narrative, et cetera.}} are universal symbols that can mediate opposites in the psyche, are often found in religious art, mythology and fairy tales across cultures. Jung saw archetypes as pre-configurations in nature that give rise to repeating, understandable, describable experiences. In addition, the concept considers the passage of time and patterns resulting from transformation.<ref>{{cite book |author=Carl Jung  |title=''The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious'', Collected Works, Volume 9, Part 1 <!-- |year=1959 --> |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-01833-1 |at=para. 80-81 }}</ref> Archetypes are said to exist independently of any current event or its effect. They are said to exert influence both across all domains of experience and throughout the stages of each individual's unique development. Being in part based on heritable physiology, they are thought to have "existed" since humans became a differentiated species. They have been deduced through the development of storytelling over tens of thousands of years, indicating repeating patterns of individual and group experience, behaviors, and effects across the planet, apparently displaying common themes.<ref name="CW9_1__90_92_118" />

The concept did not originate with Jung but with [[Plato]], who first conceived of primordial patterns. Later contributions came from [[Adolf Bastian]] and [[Hermann Usener]], among others.<ref name="CW9_1__153">{{cite book |author=Carl Jung  |title=''The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious'', Collected Works, Volume 9, Part 1 <!-- |year=1959 --> |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-01833-1 |at=para. 153 }}</ref> In the first half of the twentieth century, it proved impossible to objectively isolate and categorize the notion of an archetype within a materialist frame.  According to Jung, there are "as many archetypes as there are typical situations in life",<ref name="CW9_1__99">{{cite book |author=Carl Jung  |title=''The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious'', Collected Works, Volume 9, Part 1 <!-- |year=1959 --> |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-01833-1 |at=para. 99 }}</ref> and he asserted that they have a dynamic mutual influence on one another. Their alleged presence could be extracted from thousand-year-old narratives, from comparative religion, and from mythology.<ref name="CW9_1__89_110_115">{{cite book |author=Carl Jung  |title=''The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious'', Collected Works, Volume 9, Part 1 <!-- |year=1959 --> |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-01833-1 |at=para. 89,110,115 }}</ref> Jung elaborated on many archetypes in "''The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious''" and in "''Aion: Researches into the Phenomenology of the Self''". Examples of archetypes might be the shadow, the hero, the self, anima, animus, mother, father, child, and trickster.

==== Shadow ====
{{See also|shadow (psychology)}}
The ''shadow'' exists as part of the unconscious mind and is composed of the traits individuals instinctively or consciously resist identifying as their own and would rather ignore, typically repressed ideas, weaknesses, desires, instincts, and shortcomings. Much of the shadow comes as a result of an individual's adaptation to cultural norms and expectations.<ref name=":0" /> Thus, this archetype not only consists of all the things deemed unacceptable by society but also those things that are not aligned with one's own personal morals and values.

Jung argues that the ''shadow'' plays a distinctive role in balancing one's overall psyche, the counter-balancing to consciousness—"where there is light, there must also be shadow". Without a well-developed ''shadow'' (often "shadow work", "integrating one's shadow"), an individual can become shallow and extremely preoccupied with the opinions of others; that is, a walking [[Persona (psychology)|''persona'']].<ref name=":0" /> Not wanting to look at their shadows directly, Jung argues, often results in [[psychological projection]].  Individuals project imagined attitudes onto others without awareness.  The qualities an individual may hate (or love) in another may manifest in those who do not see the external, material truth.<ref name=":0" /> In order to truly grow as an individual, Jung believed that both the [[Persona (psychology)|''persona'']] and ''[[Shadow (psychology)|shadow]]'' should be balanced.<ref name=":0" />

The shadow can often appear as a dark, wild, exotic figure in dreams or visions.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://psychotreat.com/what-is-jungian-psychology/ | title=What is Jungian Psychology? – Types, Archetypes, Complexes and More |website=PsychoTreat | date=27 August 2021 }}</ref>

===Extraversion and introversion===
{{main|Extraversion and introversion}}
{{see also-text|[[Apollonian and Dionysian]]}}
Jung was one of the first people to define introversion and extraversion in a psychological context. In Jung's ''Psychological Types'', he theorizes that each person falls into one of two categories:  the introvert or the extravert. Jung compares these two psychological types to ancient archetypes, [[Apollo]] and [[Dionysus]]. The introvert is likened to Apollo, who shines a light on understanding. The introvert is focused on the internal world of reflection, dreaming, and vision. Thoughtful and insightful, the introvert can sometimes be uninterested in joining the activities of others. The extravert is associated with Dionysus, interested in joining the activities of the world. The extravert is focused on the outside world of objects, sensory perception, and action. Energetic and lively, the extravert may lose their sense of self in the intoxication of Dionysian pursuits.<ref>{{cite book|title=Psychological Types|author=C.G. Jung|publisher=Princeton University Press, 1971|pages=136–147}}</ref> Jungian introversion and extraversion is quite different from the modern idea of introversion and extraversion.<ref>{{cite web|last=Stepp|first=G|title=People: Who Needs Them|url=http://www.vision.org/visionmedia/social-relationships-introvert-vs-extrovert/50363.aspx|work=Vision Journal|access-date=19 December 2011}}</ref> Modern theories often stay true to behaviourist means of describing such a trait (sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, etc.), whereas Jungian introversion and extraversion are expressed as a perspective: introverts interpret the world ''subjectively'', whereas extraverts interpret the world ''objectively''.<ref name="celebritytypes1">{{cite web | url=http://www.celebritytypes.com/blog/2014/04/5-basic-facts-about-jung-and-types/ | title=5 Basic Facts about Jung and Types | work=CelebrityTypes | publisher=CelebrityTypes International | date=19 April 2014 | access-date=9 June 2015 | author=Arild, Sigurd | page=1}}</ref>

===Persona===
{{see also|Persona (psychology)}}
In his psychological theory—which is not necessarily linked to a particular theory of [[social structure]]—the ''persona'' appears as a consciously created personality or identity, fashioned out of part of the collective psyche through [[socialization]], [[acculturation]] and experience.<ref>Jolande Székács Jacobi, ''Masks of the Soul''. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1977; Robert H. Hopcke, ''Persona''. Berkeley: Shambhala Publications, 1995.</ref> Jung applied the term ''[[persona]]'' explicitly because, in Latin, it means both ''personality'' and the ''masks'' worn by Roman actors of the [[Classical antiquity|classical period]], expressive of the individual roles played.

The ''persona'', he argues, is a mask for the "collective psyche", a mask that 'pretends' individuality so that both self and others believe in that identity, even if it is really no more than a well-played ''role'' through which the collective psyche is expressed. Jung regarded the "persona-mask" as a complicated system that ''mediates'' between individual consciousness and the social community: it is "a compromise between the individual and society as to what a man should appear to be".<ref>Carl Jung", The Relations between the Ego and the Unconscious", in: [[Joseph Campbell]] (ed.), ''The Portable Jung''. New York: Viking Press, 1971, p. 106.</ref> But he also makes it quite explicit that it is, in substance, a ''character mask'' in the classical sense known to theatre, with its double function: both intended to make a certain impression on others and to hide (part of) the true nature of the individual.<ref>Carl Jung, ''Two Essays on Analytical Psychology''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2nd ed. 1977, p. 157.</ref> The therapist then aims to assist the [[individuation]] process through which the client (re)gains their "own self"—by liberating the self, both from the deceptive cover of the ''persona'' and from the power of unconscious impulses.

Jung has influenced management theory because managers and executives create an appropriate "management persona" (a corporate mask) and a persuasive identity,<ref>Joann S. Lublin, "How to Look and Act Like a Leader", ''The Wall Street Journal'', 12 September 2011.</ref> and they have to evaluate ''what sort of people'' the workers are, to manage them (for example, using [[personality test]]s and [[peer review]]s).<ref>[[Kees van der Pijl]], "May 1968 and the Alternative Globalist Movement – Cadre Class Formation and the Transition to Socialism". In: Angelika Ebbinghaus et al. (ed.), ''1968: A View of the Protest Movements 40 Years after, from a Global Perspective. 43rd {{ill|International Conference of Labour and Social History|de}} 2008.'' Vienna: Akademische Verlagsanstalt, 2009, pp. 192, 193, 194.</ref>

===Evolutionary Thought===

Of his early years, Jung would write that "mentally my greatest adventure had been the study of Kant and Schopenhauer. The great news of the day was the work of
Charles Darwin."<ref>Jung, C.G. 2014b. Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Volume 18: The Symbolic Life: Miscellaneous Writings (Princeton University Press), p. 213</ref> While Jung’s conception of human psychology is grounded in Darwinian evolutionary theory it is important to note that his evolutionary thought had a distinctively German quality to it. This is because the idiosyncratic reception of Darwin in late nineteenth and early twentieth century Germany resulted in the integration of Darwin's ideas with German embryological and developmental traditions formulated by the [[Naturphilosophie|Naturphilosophen]] and theorists such as [[Ernst Haeckel]]. It was these traditions that formed the intellectual background of Jung’s evolutionary thought.<ref>Clark, G. 2023. "Rethinking Jung’s Reception of Kant and the Naturphilosophen: Archetypes,
Evolutionary Developmental Biology and the Future of Analytical Psychology", ''International Journal of Jungian Studies'', 1: 1–31.</ref>

The result was that Jung's evolutionary conception of mind focused on embryology and development. From this perspective, the emergence of consciousness both in ontogeny (development) and phylogeny (evolution) was built upon much more archaic, affect-based subcortical brain systems. It was this developmental approach to evolution that underpinned his "archaeological" conception of the human psyche consisting of different evolutionary layers, from the deeply archaic to the more evolutionarily recent. Those more archaic structures in the brain Jung believed to be the basis of the “collective unconscious” - an aspect of human psychology shared by all members of the species ''Homo sapiens''.<ref>Clark. G. 2024. "Fossils, Anthropology and Hominin Brain Phylogeny". Chapter 2, pp. 38-40. In Carl Jung and the Evolutionary Sciences: A New Vision for Analytical Psychology, Routledge</ref>

In commenting on humanity's evolution from an ancient primate ancestor, Jung wrote: 'We keep forgetting that we are primates and that we have to make allowances for these primitive layers in our psyche.' <ref>Jung, C.G. 2020. C.G. Jung Speaking: Interviews and Encounters (Princeton University
Press).</ref> Jung also developed the notion of different evolutionary layers in the psyche in his discussion of fossil hominins such as ''Pithecanthropus'' (''Homo erectus''). As he writes:

For just as a man has a body that is no different in principle from that of an animal, so also his psychology has a whole series of lower {{sic|storeys}} in which the spectres from humanity’s past epochs still dwell, then the animal souls from the age of Pithecanthropus and the hominids, then the “psyche” of the cold-blooded saurian.<ref>Jung, C.G. 1970. Mysterium Coniunctionis: An Inquiry into the Separation and Synthesis of
Psychic Opposites in Alchemy (Princeton University Press).pp. 212-3</ref>

Jung’s notion of different evolutionary layers in the human mind has been compared with the work of neuroscientist Jaak Panksepp, particularly as outlined in his book ''The Archaeology of Mind: Neuroevolutionary Origins of Human Emotions''.<ref name="taylorfrancis.com"/> Of these affinities it has been suggested that ‘Jung and Panksepp have, independently it seems, developed similar metaphors of an archeologically layered psyche in which jewels and treasures are discoverable in the deepest phylogenetically ancient regions of the brain – for Jung they are archetypal structures for Panksepp cross-species homologies.' <ref name="taylorfrancis.com"/>

Significantly, in a 2017 article entitled "The Affective Core of the Self: A Neuro-Archetypical Perspective
on the Foundations of Human (and Animal) Subjectivity",
when noting Jung’s belief that archetypes may be related to evolutionarily ancient subcortical brain systems, [[Jaak Panksepp|Panksepp]] and colleagues wrote that "such assertions by Jung were not only quite farsighted, but they actually open ways to connect his theory of the psyche with the most advanced scientific theories and discoveries of our day." 
<ref>Alcaro, A., S. Carta, and J. Panksepp 2017. The Affective Core of the Self: A Neuro-Archetypical Perspective on the Foundations of Human (and Animal) Subjectivity, ''[[Frontiers in Psychology]]'', 8: 1–13.</ref>

===Spirituality===
{{Further|Jungian interpretation of religion}}
{{Esotericism}}
Jung's work on himself and his patients convinced him that life has a spiritual purpose beyond material goals.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://archive.org/stream/memoriesdreamsre007394mbpmemoriesdreamsre007394mbp_djvu.txt| title = Aniela Jaffe, foreword to ''Memories, Dreams, Reflections''| year = 1963| publisher = Vintage Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Dunne|first=Clare |title=Carl Jung: Wounded Healer of the Soul: An Illustrated Biography|year=2002|page=3|chapter=Prelude|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uegLZklR0fEC&pg=PA3 | isbn=978-0-8264-6307-4 | publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group}}</ref> The main task for people, he believed, is to discover and fulfill their deep, innate potential. Based on his study of [[Christianity]], [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Gnosticism]], [[Taoism]], and other traditions, Jung believed this journey of transformation, which he called [[individuation]], is at the mystical heart of all religions. It is a journey to meet the [[self]] and at the same time to meet the [[Divinity|Divine]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Frick|first=Eckhard|author2=Lautenschlager, Bruno|title=Auf Unendliches bezogen – Spirituelle Entdeckungen bei C. G. Jung|publisher= Munich: Koesel|year=2007|page=204|isbn=978-3-466-36780-1}}</ref> Unlike Freud's [[Atheism|atheistic]] worldview, Jung's [[pantheism]] may have led him to believe that spiritual experience was essential to well-being, as he specifically identifies individual human life with the universe as a whole.<ref>{{cite book|last=Crowley|first=Vivianne|title=Jung: A Journey of Transformation: Exploring His Life and Experiencing His Ideas|year=2000|publisher=Quest Books|location=Wheaton Illinois|isbn=978-0-8356-0782-7|url=https://archive.org/details/jung00vivi}}</ref><ref>Andrew Reid Fuller, "Psychology and Religion: Eight Points of View", 2002, p. 111</ref>

In 1959, Jung was asked by the host, [[John Freeman (British politician)|John Freeman]], on the [[BBC]] interview program ''[[Face to Face (British TV programme)|Face to Face]]'' whether he believed in God, to which Jung answered, "I do not need to believe. I ''know''."<ref name=bbc>{{cite web| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2AMu-G51yTY| title = BBC ''Face to Face'' broadcast, 22 October 1959| website = [[YouTube]]| date = 10 October 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rollins |first1=Wayne Giibert |title=Jung and the Bible |date=2013 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers [reprint of 1983 edition] |location=Eugene, Oregon |isbn=978-1-62564-261-5 |page=121 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_spNAwAAQBAJ&q=jung+god+%22the+listener%22&pg=PA121 |access-date=23 January 2020}}</ref> Jung's ideas on religion counterbalance Freudian skepticism. Jung's idea of religion as a practical road to individuation is still treated in modern textbooks on the [[psychology of religion]], though his ideas have been criticized.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wulff|first=David|title=Psychology of Religion: Classic and Contemporary Views|year=1991|publisher=Wiley and Sons|page=[https://archive.org/details/psychologyofreli00wulf/page/464 464]|isbn=978-0-471-50236-4|url=https://archive.org/details/psychologyofreli00wulf/page/464}}</ref>

Jung recommended spirituality as a cure for [[alcoholism]], and is considered to have had an indirect role in establishing [[Alcoholics Anonymous]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Levin|first=Jerome David|title=Introduction to Alcoholism Counseling|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=1995|page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontoal00levi/page/167 167]|chapter=Other Etiological Theories of Alcoholism|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_y7H9Sq5g6kC&pg=PA167|isbn=978-1-56032-358-7|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoal00levi/page/167}}</ref> Jung treated an American patient named [[Rowland Hazard III]] who had chronic alcoholism. After working with the patient for some time and achieving no significant progress, Jung told the man that his alcoholic condition was near to hopeless, save only the possibility of a spiritual experience. Jung noted that, occasionally, such experiences had been known to reform alcoholics when all other options had failed. Hazard took Jung's advice seriously and sought a personal, spiritual experience. He returned to the United States and joined a Christian [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]] movement known as the [[Oxford Group]]. He told other alcoholics what Jung had told him about the importance of a spiritual experience. One of the alcoholics he brought into the Oxford Group was [[Ebby Thacher]], a long-time friend and drinking buddy of [[William Griffith Wilson]], later co-founder of Alcoholics Anonymous. Thacher told Wilson about the Oxford Group, and through them, Wilson became aware of Hazard's experience with Jung. The influence of Jung thus indirectly found its way into the formation of Alcoholics Anonymous, the original [[twelve-step program]].

The above claims are documented in the letters of Jung and Wilson.<ref>Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc. (1984) ''Pass It On: The Story of Bill Wilson and How the A.A. Message Reached the World.'' New York: Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc. {{ISBN|978-0-916856-12-0}}, page. 381–386.</ref> Although some historians dispute the detail, Jung discussed an Oxford Group member, who may have been the same person, in talks around 1940. The remarks were distributed privately in transcript form, from shorthand taken by an attender (Jung reportedly approved the transcript), and later recorded in his ''Collected Works'', "For instance, when a member of the Oxford Group comes to me in order to get treatment, I say, 'You are in the Oxford Group; so long as you are there, you settle your affair with the Oxford Group. I can't do it better than Jesus.{{'"}}<ref>Jung, C. G.; [[Gerhard Adler|Adler, G.]] and Hull, R. F. C., eds. (1977), ''Collected Works of C. G. Jung, Volume 18: The Symbolic Life: Miscellaneous Writings'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-09892-0}}, [p. 272, https://web.archive.org/web/20070908023121/http://www.stellarfire.org/additional.html]</ref> Jung goes on to state he has seen similar cures among [[Roman Catholics]]. The 12-step program of Alcoholics Anonymous has a psychological backdrop involving the human ego and the dichotomy between the conscious and unconscious mind.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hopemakersrecovery.com/psychology/jungian-12-steps|title=Jungian 12 Steps|website=Hope Makers|access-date=5 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609020111/https://www.hopemakersrecovery.com/psychology/jungian-12-steps|archive-date=9 June 2019}}</ref>

=== Inquiries into the paranormal ===

Jung had an apparent interest in the paranormal and occult. For decades he attended [[seance]]s and claimed to have witnessed "parapsychic phenomena". Initially, he attributed these to psychological causes, even delivering a 1919 lecture in England for the Society for Psychical Research on "The Psychological Foundations for the belief in spirits".<ref name="Jung1997">{{cite book|author=Carl Gustav Jung|title=Jung on Synchronicity and the Paranormal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=usrGSaO7QosC|year=1997|publisher=Psychology Press|page=6|isbn=978-0-415-15509-0}}</ref> However, he began to "doubt whether an exclusively psychological approach can do justice to the phenomena in question"<ref name="Jung1997"/> and stated that "the spirit hypothesis yields better results".<ref name="Carl Gustav Jung 1997 7">{{cite book|author=Carl Gustav Jung|title=Jung on Synchronicity and the Paranormal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=usrGSaO7QosC|year=1997|publisher=Psychology Press|page=7|isbn=978-0-415-15509-0}}</ref> But he retained some skepticism toward his own postulation, as he could not find material evidence of the existence of spirits.<ref name="Carl Gustav Jung 1997 7"/>

Jung's ideas about the paranormal culminated in "[[synchronicity]]".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nickell |first1=Joe |author-link=Joe Nickell |title="Visitations": After-Death Contacts |journal=Skeptical Inquirer |date=September 2002 |volume=12 |issue=3 |url=https://www.csicop.org/sb/show/visitations_after-death_contacts |access-date=8 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180808203007/https://www.csicop.org/sb/show/visitations_after-death_contacts |archive-date=8 August 2018}}</ref>  This is the idea that certain coincidences manifest in the world, have exceptionally intense meaning to observers.  Such coincidences have a great effect on the observer from multiple cumulative aspects: from the immediate personal relevance of the coincidence to the observer, from the peculiarities of (the nature of, the character, novelty, curiosity of) any such coincidence; from the sheer improbability of the coincidence, having no apparent causal link (hence Jung's essay subtitle "An Acausal Connecting Principle").  Despite his own experiments failing to confirm the phenomenon<ref name="ShermerLinse2002">{{cite book|author1=Michael Shermer|author2=Pat Linse|title=The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gr4snwg7iaEC&pg=PA241|year=2002|publisher=ABC-CLIO|pages=240–241|isbn=978-1-57607-653-8}}</ref> he held on to the idea as an explanation for apparent [[Extrasensory perception|ESP]].<ref name="Jung2013">{{cite book|author=C. G. Jung|title=Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x-Rxhf2gUa8C&pg=PA27|date=15 April 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-96845-9|page=27}}</ref> In addition, he proposed it as a functional explanation for how the [[I-Ching]] worked. However, he was never clear about how synchronicity worked.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sullivan |first1=Charles |title=Whats Wrong with the I Ching? Ambiguity, Obscurity, and Synchronicity |journal=Skeptical Inquirer |date=August 2009 |volume=33 |issue=4 |url=https://www.csicop.org/si/show/whats_wrong_with_the_i_ching_ambiguity_obscurity_and_synchronicity |access-date=8 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214171807/https://www.csicop.org/si/show/whats_wrong_with_the_i_ching_ambiguity_obscurity_and_synchronicity |archive-date=14 December 2017}}</ref>

===Interpretation of quantum mechanics===
Jung influenced one philosophical interpretation (not the science) of quantum physics with the concept of [[synchronicity]] regarding some events as [[causality|non-causal]]. That idea influenced the physicist [[Wolfgang Pauli]] (with whom, via a letter correspondence, Jung developed the notion of ''[[unus mundus]]'' in connection with the idea of nonlocality) and some other [[Quantum physics|physicists]].<ref>Jung, C. G. and [[Wolfgang Pauli]], ''The Interpretation of Nature and Psyche'', New York: Pantheon Books, 1955.</ref>

===Alchemy===
[[File:Michael Maier Atalanta Fugiens Emblem 21.jpeg|thumb|The mythic alchemical philosopher's stone as pictured in ''[[Atalanta Fugiens]]'' Emblem 21]]
Jung's acquaintance with alchemy came between 1928 and 1930 when he was introduced to a manuscript of ''[[The Secret of the Golden Flower]]'', translated by [[Richard Wilhelm (sinologist)|Richard Wilhelm]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jung |first1=Carl |editor1-last=Shamdasani |editor1-first=Sonu |title=The Red Book |date=2012 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |page=555 |edition=Reader |chapter=Epilogue}}</ref>  The work and writings of Jung from the 1930s onwards shifted to a focus on the [[Alchemy#Psychology|psychological significance of alchemy]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jung |first1=Carl |editor1-last=Hull |editor1-first=R.F.C. |title=Psychology and Alchemy |date=1952 |publisher=Princeton University Press |edition=1968 Second Edition completely revised |chapter=From Editorial Note to the First Edition}}</ref>

In 1944, Jung published ''[[Psychology and Alchemy]]'', in which he analyzed the alchemical symbols and came to the conclusion that there is a direct relationship between them and the psychoanalytical process.{{refn|group=lower-alpha|'For Jung, alchemy is not only part of the pre-history of chemistry, that is, not only laboratory work, but also an essential part of the history of psychology as the history of the discovery of the deep structure of the psyche and its unconscious. Jung emphasized the significance of the symbolic structure of alchemical texts, a structure that is understood as a way independent of laboratory research, as a structure per se.' {{cite book|last=Calian|first=George Florin|title=Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy|url=https://archive.org/stream/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe/FlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy#page/n0/mode/2up|publisher=Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU|location=Budapest|year=2010|pages=167–168}}}} He argued that the alchemical process was the transformation of the impure soul (lead) to perfected soul (gold), and a metaphor for the individuation process.<ref name="jungbio1"/>

In 1963, ''[[Mysterium Coniunctionis]]'' first appeared in English as part of ''[[The Collected Works of C. G. Jung]]''. ''Mysterium Coniunctionis'' was Jung's last major book and focused on the "''Mysterium Coniunctionis''" archetype, known as the [[sacred marriage]] between the sun and moon. Jung argued that the stages of the alchemists, the blackening, the whitening, the reddening, and the yellowing, could be taken as symbolic of individuation—his chosen term for personal growth (75).<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Wagner |first=Christopher Franklin |date=2019-05-15 |title=Of Books and Fire: Approaching the Alchemy of Carl Gustav Jung |url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/290574 |language=en |doi=10.17863/CAM.37801}}</ref>

===Art therapy===
{{further|Art therapy}}
Jung proposed that art can be used to alleviate or contain feelings of trauma, fear, or anxiety and also to repair, restore, and heal.<ref name="art-therapy"/> In his work with patients and his own personal explorations, Jung wrote that art expression and images found in dreams could help recover from trauma and emotional distress. At times of emotional distress, he often drew, painted, or made objects and constructions, which he recognized as more than recreational.<ref name="art-therapy"/>

=== Dance/movement therapy ===
[[Dance therapy|Dance and movement therapy]], as a form of active imagination, was developed by Jung and [[Toni Wolff]] in 1916<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.routledge.com/Dance-Therapy-and-Depth-Psychology-The-Moving-Imagination/Chodorow/p/book/9780415041133|title=Dance Therapy and Depth Psychology: The Moving Imagination – Routledge|last=Chodorow|first=Joan|year=1991|access-date=23 November 2017}}</ref> and practiced by [[Tina Keller-Jenny]] and other analysts. It remained largely unknown until the 1950s when it was rediscovered by [[Marian Chace]] and therapist Mary Whitehouse. Whitehouse, after studying with [[Martha Graham]] and [[Mary Wigman]], became a dancer and teacher of modern dance,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xywBCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA33|title=Authentic Movement: Moving the Body, Moving the Self, Being Moved: A Collection of Essays – Volume Two|last=Pallaro|first=Patrizia|date=15 January 2007|publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers|isbn=978-1-84642-586-8|location=London|page=33|language=en}}</ref> and, along with Swiss dancer [[Trudi Schoop]], is considered one of the founders of dance/movement therapy in the U.S.

===Political views===
====The state====
Jung stressed the importance of [[Natural and legal rights|individual rights]] in a person's relation to the state and society. He saw that the state was treated as "a quasi-animate personality from whom everything is expected" but that this personality was "only camouflage for those individuals who know how to manipulate it".<ref>{{cite book|isbn=978-0-451-21860-5|title=The Undiscovered Self: The Problem of the Individual in Modern Society|pages=15–16|publisher=New American Library|last=Jung|first=Carl|year=2006}}</ref> He referred to the state as a form of slavery.<ref>C. G. Jung, ''Die Beziehungen zwischen dem Ich und dem Unbewußten'', chapter one, second section, 1928. Also, C. G. Jung ''Aufsätze zur Zeitgeschichte'', 1946. Speeches made in 1933 and 1937 are excerpted.</ref><ref>{{cite book|isbn=978-0-451-21860-5|title=The Undiscovered Self: The Problem of the Individual in Modern Society|page=14|publisher=New American Library|last=Jung|first=Carl|year=2006}}</ref><ref name="Jung 2006 23–24">{{cite book|isbn=978-0-451-21860-5|title=The Undiscovered Self: The Problem of the Individual in Modern Society|pages=23–24|publisher=New American Library|last=Jung|first=Carl|year=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|isbn=978-0-300-16650-7|title=Psychology and Religion|page=59|publisher=The Vail-Ballou Press ic.|last=Jung|first=Carl<!-- |year=1960 -->}}</ref> He also thought that the state "swallowed up [people's] religious forces",<ref>{{cite book|isbn=978-0-451-21860-5|title=The Undiscovered Self: The Problem of the Individual in Modern Society|page=23|publisher=New American Library|last=Jung|first=Carl|year=2006}}</ref> and therefore that the state had "taken the place of God"—making it comparable to a religion in which "state slavery is a form of worship".<ref name="Jung 2006 23–24"/> Jung observed that "stage acts of [the] state" are comparable to religious displays:

{{blockquote|Brass bands, flags, banners, parades and monster demonstrations are no different in principle from ecclesiastical processions, cannonades and fire to scare off demons.<ref>{{cite book|isbn=978-0-451-21860-5|title=The Undiscovered Self: The Problem of the Individual in Modern Society|page=25|publisher=New American Library|last=Jung|first=Carl|year=2006}}</ref>}}

From Jung's perspective, this replacement of God with the state in a mass society leads to the dislocation of the religious drive and results in the same [[fanaticism]] of the [[Papal States|church-states]] of the [[Dark Ages (historiography)|Dark Ages]]—wherein the more the state is 'worshipped', the more freedom and morality are suppressed;<ref>{{cite book|isbn=978-0-451-21860-5|title=The Undiscovered Self: The Problem of the Individual in Modern Society|page=24|publisher=New American Library|last=Jung|first=Carl|year=2006}}</ref> this ultimately leaves the individual psychically undeveloped with extreme feelings of marginalization.<ref>{{cite book|isbn=978-0-451-21860-5|title=The Undiscovered Self: The Problem of the Individual in Modern Society|page=14 & 45|publisher=New American Library|last=Jung|first=Carl|year=2006}}</ref>

====Service to the Allies during World War II====
Jung was in contact with [[Allen Dulles]] of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (predecessor of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]]) and provided valuable intelligence on the psychological condition of [[Hitler]].  Dulles referred to Jung as "Agent 488" and offered the following description of his service: "Nobody will probably ever know how much Professor Jung contributed to the Allied Cause during the war, by seeing people who were connected somehow with the other side".  Jung's service to the Allied cause through the OSS remained classified after the war.<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-shrink-as-secret-agent-jung-hitler-and-the-oss | title=The Shrink as Secret Agent: Jung, Hitler, and the OSS| newspaper=The Daily Beast| date=12 November 2016| last1=Dickey| first1=Christopher}}</ref>

===Relationship to Nazism and antisemitism===
In "The State of Psychotherapy Today",<ref>[[The Collected Works of C. G. Jung|Collected Works]], Volume 10</ref> published in 1934 in the ''Zentralblatt für Psychotherapie'', Jung wrote: "The [[Aryan race|Aryan]] unconscious has a greater potential than the Jewish unconscious" and "The Jew, who is something of a nomad, has never yet created a cultural form of his own and as far as we can see never will".<ref>Falk, A ''Anti-Semitism A History and Psychoanalysis of Contemporary Hatred'' Westport Connecticut: Praeger, 2008, pp. 110–111</ref> [[Andrew Samuels]] argues that his remarks on the "Aryan unconscious" and the "corrosive character" of Freud's "Jewish gospel"<ref>Letter to William M Kranefeldt dd 9 February 1934 reprinted in the ''International Review of Psychoanalysis'' Vol. 4:377 (1977)</ref> demonstrate a form of antisemitism "fundamental to the structure of Jung's thought" but also argues that there is a "pioneering nature of Jung's contributions" and that "his intuition of the importance of exploring difference remains intact."<ref>[[Andrew Samuels|Samuels, Andrew]]. (1997), Institute of Historical Research, University of London e-seminar.[http://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/4412/1/Jung_And_Antisemitism_by_Andrew_Samuels___Institute_of_Historical_Research.pdf "Jung and Anti-Semitism"], Also published in the ''Jewish Quarterly'', Spring 1994.</ref>

In 1933, after the Nazis gained power in Germany, Jung became the president of the new [[International General Medical Society for Psychotherapy]] (''Allgemeine Ärztliche Gesellschaft für Psychotherapie''), a professional body which aimed to have affiliated organizations in different countries.<ref>Jaffé, Aniela (1972); ''From the Life and Work of C.&nbsp;G. Jung''; Hodder and Stoughton, London. {{ISBN|978-0-340-12515-1}}; pp.&nbsp;79–80.</ref> The German affiliated organization, the Deutsche Allgemeine Ärztliche Gesellschaft für Psychotherapie, led by [[Matthias Göring]], an [[Alfred Adler|Adlerian]] psychotherapist<ref>{{cite news| url = https://www.nytimes.com/1985/01/27/books/psychotherapy-in-the-third-reich.html| title = Lifton, Robert Jay (27 January 1985) "Psychotherapy in the Third Reich"| newspaper = The New York Times| date = 27 January 1985| last1 = Lifton| first1 = Robert Jay}} ''The New York Times''</ref> and a cousin of the prominent Nazi [[Hermann Göring]], excluded Jews. In 1933, the society's ''Zentralblatt für Psychotherapie'' journal published a statement endorsing Nazi positions<ref>Jaffé, Aniela (1972); ''From the Life and Work of C.&nbsp;G. Jung''; Hodder and Stoughton, London. {{ISBN|978-0-340-12515-1}}; p.&nbsp;80.</ref> and Hitler's book ''[[Mein Kampf]]''.<ref>Mark Medweth. [https://web.archive.org/web/20050331084847/http://www.sfu.ca/~wwwpsyb/issues/1996/winter/medweth.htm "Jung and the Nazis"], in ''Psybernetika'', Winter 1996.</ref> In 1934, Jung wrote in a Swiss publication, the ''[[Neue Zürcher Zeitung]]'', that he experienced "great surprise and disappointment"<ref>Article republished in English in Jung, Carl G. (1970); ''Collected Works'', Volume 10; Routledge and Kegan Paul, London; {{ISBN|978-0-7100-1640-9}}; p.&nbsp;538.</ref> when the ''Zentralblatt'' associated his name with the pro-Nazi statement. He did not end his relationship with the ''Zentralblatt'' at this time, but he did arrange the appointment of a new managing editor, [[Carl Alfred Meier]] of Switzerland. For the next few years, the ''Zentralblatt'' under Jung and Meier maintained a position distinct from that of the Nazis in that it continued to acknowledge the contributions of Jewish doctors to psychotherapy.<ref name=Jaffe_p83>Jaffé, Aniela (1972); ''From the Life and Work of C.&nbsp;G. Jung''; Hodder and Stoughton, London. {{ISBN|978-0-340-12515-1}}; p.&nbsp;83.</ref> In the face of energetic German attempts to Nazify the international body, Jung resigned from its presidency in 1939,<ref name=Jaffe_p83/> the year the [[Second World War]] started.

The International Society's constitution permitted individual doctors to join it directly rather than through one of the national affiliated societies, a provision to which Jung drew attention in a circular in 1934.<ref>An English translation of the circular is in Jung, Carl G. (1970); ''Collected Works'', Volume 10; Routledge and Kegan Paul, London; {{ISBN|978-0-7100-1640-9}}; pp.&nbsp;545–546.</ref> This implied that German Jewish doctors could maintain their professional status as individual members of the international body, even though they were excluded from the German affiliate, as well as from other German medical societies operating under the Nazis.<ref>Jaffé, Aniela (1972); ''From the Life and Work of C.&nbsp;G. Jung''; Hodder and Stoughton, London. {{ISBN|978-0-340-12515-1}}; p.&nbsp;82.</ref>
Jung went on to say, "The main point is to get a young and insecure science into a place of safety during an earthquake."<ref>Article republished in English in Jung, Carl G. (1970); ''Collected Works'', Volume 10; Routledge and Kegan Paul, London; {{ISBN|978-0-7100-1640-9}}; p.&nbsp;538. See also Stevens, Anthony, ''Jung: a very short introduction'', Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-19-285458-2}}</ref>

Scholar [[Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi]] believed that Jung's antisemitism may have contributed to the schism between Freud and his circle of psychoanalysts, who were predominantly Jews.<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi]]|title=Freud's Moses|year=1991|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=0-300-05756-3|page=42}}</ref>

Jung's interest in [[European mythology]] and [[folk psychology]] was shared by the [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Noll |first=Richard |edition=1st |date=1994 |title=The Jung Cult: Origins of a Charismatic Movement |page=336 |publisher=Princeton University Press }}</ref>{{sfn|Grossman|1979}}<ref name="theguardian">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2011/jun/06/carl-jung-freud-nazis|last=Vernon|first=Mark|work=The Guardian|date=6 June 2011|title=Carl Jung, part 2: A troubled relationship with Freud – and the Nazis|access-date=7 June 2015}}</ref> [[Richard Noll]] describes Jung's own reaction to this connection:

{{blockquote|Jung clearly identifies himself with the spirit of German [[Völkisch movement|Volkstumsbewegung]] throughout this period and well into the 1920s and 1930s, until the horrors of Nazism finally compelled him to reframe these [[neopagan]] metaphors in a negative light in his 1936 essay on [[Wotan]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Noll |first=Richard |edition=1st |date=1994 |title=The Jung Cult: Origins of a Charismatic Movement |page=134 |publisher=Princeton University Press }}</ref>}}

Various statements made by Jung in the 1930s have been cited as evidence of both contempt for Nazism and sympathy for Nazism.<ref name="Clark, R.W 1980 pp. 492">Clark, R.W (1980) ''Freud: the Man and the Cause''. London: Cape, pp. 492–3</ref> In the 1936 essay "Wotan", Jung described the influence of [[Adolf Hitler]] on Germany as "one man who is obviously 'possessed' has infected a whole nation to such an extent that everything is set in motion and has started rolling on its course towards perdition."<ref>{{cite book|title = Carl Gustav Jung: Avant-Garde Conservative|first=Jay|last=Sherry|year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan}}</ref><ref>Jung, Carl G. (1970); ''Collected Works'', Volume 10; Routledge and Kegan Paul, London; {{ISBN|978-0-7100-1640-9}}; p. 185.</ref> He would later say, during a lengthy interview with [[Hubert Renfro Knickerbocker|H. R. Knickerbocker]] in October 1938:<ref>''C. G. Jung Speaking: Interviews and Encounters'', eds. William McGuire and [[R. F. C. Hull]], Princeton University Press, pp. 128, reprint from ''Diagnosing the Dictators'' (1938).</ref><ref>''C. G. Jung Speaking: Interviews and Encounters'', eds. William McGuire and [[R. F. C. Hull]] (London: Thames and Hudson, 1978), pp. 91–93, 115–135, 136–40.</ref>
{{blockquote|Hitler seemed like the 'double' of a real person, as if Hitler the man might be hiding inside like an appendix, and deliberately so concealed in order not to disturb the mechanism&nbsp;... You know you could never talk to this man; because there is nobody there&nbsp;... It is not an individual; it is an entire nation.}}

In an interview in 1949, Carl Jung said, 
{{blockquote|It must be clear to anyone who has read any of my books that I have never been a Nazi sympathizer and I never have been anti-Semitic, and no amount of misquotation, mistranslation, or rearrangement of what I have written can alter the record of my true point of view. Nearly every one of these passages has been tampered with, either by malice or by ignorance. Furthermore, my friendly relations with a large group of Jewish colleagues and patients over a period of many years in itself disproves the charge of anti-Semitism.<ref>Carl Jung, interview by Carol Baumann, published in the Bulletin of Analytical Psychology Club of New York (December 1949)</ref>}}Jung is also known to have possessed an interest in the Jewish mystic tradition of Kabbalah.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hoeller |first=Stephan A. |date=April 2012 |title=Jung, Kabbalah, and Gnosis |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00332925.2012.677606 |journal=Psychological Perspectives |language=en |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=163–181 |doi=10.1080/00332925.2012.677606 |issn=0033-2925}}</ref>

===Views on homosexuality===
Jung addressed homosexuality in his published writings, in one comment specifying that homosexuality should not be a concern of legal authorities nor be considered a crime. He also stated that homosexuality does not reduce the value of a person as a member of society. Jung also said that homosexuality is a result of psychological immaturity ([[Nature versus nurture|"nurture"]]), but only if one's sexuality is not an aspect of their constitutional characteristics ([[Nature versus nurture|"nature"]]).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hopcke |first1=R. |title=Jung and Homosexuality: A Clearer Vision |journal=Journal of Analytical Psychology |date=1988 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=65–80 |doi=10.1111/j.1465-5922.1988.00065.x|pmid=3350769 }}</ref>

===Psychedelics===

Jung's theories are considered to be a useful therapeutic framework for the analysis of unconscious phenomena that become manifest in the acute psychedelic state.<ref name="taylorfrancis.com"/><ref>Hill, S.J. 2013. Confrontation with the Unconscious: Jungian Depth Psychology and Psychedelic Experience: Muswell Hill Press</ref><ref name="carhart">{{cite journal| author1-first=R|author1-last=Carhart-Harris|author1-link=Robin Carhart-Harris|author2-first= K.J.|author2-last=Friston| title=The default-mode, ego-functions and free-energy: a neurobiological account of Freudian ideas. | journal=Brain | year= 2010 | volume= 133 | issue= Pt 4 | pages= 1265–83 | pmid=20194141 | doi=10.1093/brain/awq010 | pmc=2850580 }}</ref><ref name=entropic/><ref>Clark, Gary. 'Integrating the Archaic and the Modern: The Red Book, Visual Cognitive Modalities and the Neuroscience of Altered States of Consciousness'. In ''Jung's Red Book for Our Time: Searching for Soul Under Postmodern Conditions Volume 4''. Ed. Murray Stein and Thomas Arzt. Chiron Publications.</ref> This view is based on correspondence Jung had with researchers involved in psychedelic research in the 1950s, as well as more recent neuroimaging research where subjects who are administered psychedelic compounds seem to have archetypal religious experiences of "unity" and "ego dissolution" associated with reduced activity in the default mode network.<ref name="carhart"/><ref name=entropic>{{Cite journal|title=The entropic brain: a theory of conscious states informed by neuroimaging research with psychedelic drugs|first1=Robin|last1=Carhart-Harris|first2=Robert|last2=Leech|first3=Peter|last3=Hellyer|first4=Murray|last4=Shanahan|first5=Amanda|last5=Feilding|first6=Enzo|last6=Tagliazucchi|first7=Dante|last7=Chialvo|first8=David|last8=Nutt|date=8 August 2014|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|volume=8|page=20 |doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00020|pmid=24550805|pmc=3909994 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|url=https://brill.com/view/journals/ijjs/14/2/article-p97_1.xml|title=Carl Jung and the Psychedelic Brain: An Evolutionary Model of Analytical Psychology Informed by Psychedelic Neuroscience|first=Gary|last=Clark|date=9 September 2021|journal=International Journal of Jungian Studies|volume=14|issue=2|pages=97–126|via=brill.com|doi=10.1163/19409060-bja10017|s2cid=240246004 }}</ref>

This research has led to a re-evaluation of Jung's work, particularly the visions detailed in ''[[The Red Book (Jung)|The Red Book]]'', in the context of contemporary psychedelic, evolutionary, and developmental [[Jungian neuroscience|neuroscience]]. For example, in a chapter entitled "Integrating the Archaic and the Modern: The Red Book, Visual Cognitive Modalities and the Neuroscience of Altered States of Consciousness", in the 2020 volume ''Jung's Red Book for Our Time: Searching for Soul Under Postmodern Conditions, Volume 4'', it is argued Jung was a pioneer who explored uncharted "cognitive domains" that are alien to Western modes of thought. While such domains of experience are not part of mainstream Western culture and thought, they are central to various Indigenous cultures that use psychedelics such as [[Tabernanthe iboga|Iboga]] and [[Ayahuasca]] during rituals to alter consciousness. The author writes: "Jung seems to have been dealing with modes of consciousness alien to mainstream Western thought, exploring the terrain of uncharted cognitive domains. I argue that science is beginning to catch up with Jung who was a pioneer whose insights contribute a great deal to our emerging understanding of human consciousness."<ref>Clark, Gary. Integrating the Archaic and the Modern: The Red Book, Visual Cognitive Modalities and the Neuroscience of Altered States of Consciousness. In Jung's Red Book for Our Time: Searching for Soul Under Postmodern Conditions Volume 4. Ed. Murray Stein and Thomas Arzt. Chiron Publications, p. 147.</ref> In this analysis, Jung's paintings of his visions in ''[[The Red Book (Jung)|The Red Book]]'' were compared to the paintings of Ayahuasca visions by the Peruvian shaman [[Pablo Amaringo]].<ref>Clark, Gary. Integrating the Archaic and the Modern: The Red Book, Visual Cognitive Modalities and the Neuroscience of Altered States of Consciousness. In Jung's Red Book for Our Time: Searching for Soul Under Postmodern Conditions Volume 4. Ed. Murray Stein and Thomas Arzt. Chiron Publications, p. 158.</ref>

Commenting on research that was being undertaken during the 1950s, Jung wrote the following in a letter to Betty Eisner, a psychologist who was involved in LSD research at the University of California: "Experiments along the line of mescaline and related drugs are certainly most interesting since such drugs lay bare a level of the unconscious that is otherwise accessible only under peculiar psychic conditions. It is a fact that you get certain perceptions and experiences of things appearing either in mystical states or in the analysis of unconscious phenomena."<ref>Jung, C.G., [[Gerhard Adler|G. Adler]], and A. Jaffé. 1976. Letters: Routledge, p. 382.</ref>

An account of Jung and psychedelics, as well as the importance of Jungian psychology to psychedelic-assisted therapies, is outlined in Scott Hill's 2013 book ''Confrontation with the Unconscious: Jungian Depth Psychology and Psychedelic Experience''.<ref>Hill, S.J. 2013. Confrontation with the Unconscious: Jungian Depth Psychology and Psychedelic Experience: Muswell Hill Press.</ref> A 2021 article discusses Jung's attitude towards psychedelics, as well as the applicability of his ideas to current research.<ref name="auto"/> As the author writes, Jung's "...legitimate reservations about the clinical use of psychedelics are no longer relevant as the field has progressed significantly, devising robust clinical and experimental protocols for psychedelic-assisted therapies. That said Jung's concept of individuation—that is the integration of the archaic unconscious with consciousness—seems extremely pertinent to modern psychedelic research."<ref name="auto"/> The author also uses work in evolutionary and psychedelic neuroscience, and specifically the latter's ability to make manifest ancient subcortical brain systems, to illuminate Jung's concept of an archaic collective unconscious that evolved before the ego complex and the uniquely human default mode network.<ref name="auto"/>