Editing Brain (section)

=== Motivation ===
[[File:Basal ganglia.svg|thumb|right|350px|Components of the basal ganglia, shown in two cross-sections of the human brain. Blue: [[caudate nucleus]] and [[putamen]]. Green: [[globus pallidus]]. Red: [[subthalamic nucleus]]. Black: [[substantia nigra]].]]

The individual animals need to express survival-promoting behaviors, such as seeking food, water, shelter, and a mate.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chiel |first1=HJ |last2=Beer |first2=RD |title=The brain has a body: adaptive behavior emerges from interactions of nervous system, body, and environment |journal=Trends in Neurosciences |year=1997 |volume=20 |pages=553–557 |doi=10.1016/S0166-2236(97)01149-1 |pmid=9416664 |issue=12|s2cid=5634365 }}</ref> The motivational system in the brain monitors the current state of satisfaction of these goals, and activates behaviors to meet any needs that arise. The motivational system works largely by a reward–punishment mechanism. When a particular behavior is followed by favorable consequences, the [[reward system|reward mechanism]] in the brain is activated, which induces structural changes inside the brain that cause the same behavior to be repeated later, whenever a similar situation arises. Conversely, when a behavior is followed by unfavorable consequences, the brain's punishment mechanism is activated, inducing structural changes that cause the behavior to be suppressed when similar situations arise in the future.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Berridge |first=KC |title=Motivation concepts in behavioral neuroscience |journal=Physiology & Behavior |year=2004 |volume=81 |pages=179–209 |pmid=15159167 |issue=2 |doi=10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.02.004|s2cid=14149019 }}</ref>

Most organisms studied to date use a reward–punishment mechanism: for instance, worms and insects can alter their behavior to seek food sources or to avoid dangers.<ref>{{cite journal |title=An elegant mind: learning and memory in ''Caenorhabditis elegans'' |journal=Learning and Memory |year=2010 |volume=17 |pages=191–201 |last1=Ardiel |first1=EL |last2=Rankin |first2=CH |doi=10.1101/lm.960510 |pmid=20335372 |issue=4|doi-access=free }}</ref> In vertebrates, the reward-punishment system is implemented by a specific set of brain structures, at the heart of which lie the basal ganglia, a set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain.<ref name=Grillner2005/> The basal ganglia are the central site at which decisions are made: the basal ganglia exert a sustained inhibitory control over most of the motor systems in the brain; when this inhibition is released, a motor system is permitted to execute the action it is programmed to carry out. Rewards and punishments function by altering the relationship between the inputs that the basal ganglia receive and the decision-signals that are emitted. The reward mechanism is better understood than the punishment mechanism, because its role in drug abuse has caused it to be studied very intensively. Research has shown that the neurotransmitter dopamine plays a central role: addictive drugs such as cocaine, amphetamine, and nicotine either cause dopamine levels to rise or cause the effects of dopamine inside the brain to be enhanced.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Addiction and the brain: the neurobiology of compulsion and its persistence |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |year=2001 |volume=2 |pages=695–703 |last1=Hyman |first1=SE |last2=Malenka |first2=RC |doi=10.1038/35094560 |pmid=11584307 |issue=10|s2cid=3333114 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1233105 }}</ref>