Editing Arrow's impossibility theorem (section)

==== Nonstandard spoilers ====
[[Behavioral economics|Behavioral economists]] have shown individual [[irrationality]] involves violations of IIA (e.g. with [[decoy effect]]s),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Huber |first1=Joel |last2=Payne |first2=John W. |last3=Puto |first3=Christopher |year=1982 |title=Adding Asymmetrically Dominated Alternatives: Violations of Regularity and the Similarity Hypothesis |journal=Journal of Consumer Research |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=90–98 |doi=10.1086/208899 |s2cid=120998684}}</ref> suggesting human behavior can cause IIA failures even if the voting method itself does not.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ohtsubo |first1=Yohsuke |last2=Watanabe |first2=Yoriko |date=September 2003 |title=Contrast Effects and Approval Voting: An Illustration of a Systematic Violation of the Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives Condition |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/0162-895X.00340 |journal=Political Psychology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=549–559 |doi=10.1111/0162-895X.00340 |issn=0162-895X}}</ref> However, past research has typically found such effects to be fairly small,<ref name="HuberPayne20142">{{cite journal |last1=Huber |first1=Joel |last2=Payne |first2=John W. |last3=Puto |first3=Christopher P. |year=2014 |title=Let's Be Honest About the Attraction Effect |journal=Journal of Marketing Research |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=520–525 |doi=10.1509/jmr.14.0208 |issn=0022-2437 |s2cid=143974563}}</ref> and such psychological spoilers can appear regardless of electoral system. [[Michel Balinski|Balinski]] and [[Rida Laraki|Laraki]] discuss techniques of [[ballot design]] derived from [[psychometrics]] that minimize these psychological effects, such as asking voters to give each candidate a verbal grade (e.g. "bad", "neutral", "good", "excellent") and issuing instructions to voters that refer to their ballots as judgments of individual candidates.<ref name=":mj2" />{{Page needed|date=October 2024}} Similar techniques are often discussed in the context of [[contingent valuation]].<ref name="Arrow" />