Editing Aphid (section)

==Interactions with humans==
===Pest status===
About 5000 species of aphid have been described and of these, some 450 species have colonized food and fiber crops. As direct feeders on plant sap, they damage crops and reduce yields, but they have a greater impact by being [[vector (disease)|vectors]] of plant viruses. The transmission of these viruses depends on the movements of aphids between different parts of a plant, between nearby plants, and further afield. In this respect, the probing behavior of an aphid tasting a host is more damaging than lengthy aphid feeding and reproduction by stay-put individuals. The movement of aphids influences the timing of virus epidemics.<ref name="vanEmden">{{cite book |author1=van Emden, Helmut F. |author2=Harrington, Richard |title=Aphids as Crop Pests |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tH46DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA196 |year=2017 |publisher=CABI |isbn=978-1-78064-709-8 |pages=196–198}}</ref> They are major pests of [[greenhouse]] crops and species often encountered in greenhouses include: green peach aphid (''[[Myzus persicae]]''), cotton or melon aphid (''[[Aphis gossypii]]''), potato aphid (''[[Macrosiphum euphorbiae]]''), foxglove aphid (''[[Aulacorthum solani]]'') and chrysanthemum aphid (''[[Macrosiphoniella sanborni]]'') and others, which cause leaf yellowing, distorted leaves, and plant stunting; the excreted honeydew is a growing medium for a number of fungal pathogens including black sooty molds from the genera ''[[Capnodium]]'', ''[[Fumago]]'', and ''[[Scorias]]'' which then infect leaves and inhibit growth by reducing [[photosynthesis]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cloyd|first=Raymond|date=14 February 2022|title=Aphids|journal=Greenhouse Product News|volume=32|pages=14}}</ref>

Aphids, especially during large outbreaks, have been known to trigger allergic inhalant reactions in sensitive humans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shulman |first=Sidney |date=1967-01-01 |title=Allergic Responses to Insects |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=323–346 |doi=10.1146/annurev.en.12.010167.001543}}</ref>

Dispersal can be by walking or flight, appetitive dispersal, or by migration. Winged aphids are weak fliers, lose their wings after a few days and only fly by day. Dispersal by flight is affected by the impact, air currents, gravity, precipitation, and other factors, or dispersal may be accidental, caused by the movement of plant materials, animals, farm machinery, vehicles, or aircraft.<ref name=vanEmden/>

===Control===
[[File:Wasp & aphid May 2010-1.jpg|thumb|left|[[Parasitoid wasp|Parasitoid]] [[braconid wasp]] ovipositing in [[black bean aphid]]]]

[[Insecticide]] control of aphids is difficult, as they breed rapidly, so even small areas missed may enable the population to recover promptly. Aphids may occupy the undersides of leaves where spray misses them, while [[systemic insecticide]]s do not move satisfactorily into flower petals. Finally, some aphid species are [[insecticide resistance|resistant to common insecticide classes]] including [[carbamate]]s, [[organophosphate]]s, and [[pyrethroid]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Pundt |first1=Leanne |title=Managing Aphids in the Greenhouse |url=http://ipm.uconn.edu/documents/raw2/Managing%20Aphids%20in%20the%20Greenhouse/Managing%20Aphids%20in%20the%20Greenhouse.php |publisher=University of Connecticut College of Agriculture, Health, and Natural Resources |access-date=20 February 2018 |date=2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180218232943/http://ipm.uconn.edu/documents/raw2/Managing%20Aphids%20in%20the%20Greenhouse/Managing%20Aphids%20in%20the%20Greenhouse.php |archive-date=2018-02-18 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

For small backyard infestations, spraying plants thoroughly with a strong water jet every few days may be sufficient protection. An [[insecticidal soap]] solution can be an effective household remedy to control aphids, but it only kills aphids on contact and has no residual effect. Soap spray may damage plants, especially at higher concentrations or at temperatures above {{convert|32|°C|°F|0|abbr=on}}; some plant species are sensitive to soap sprays.<ref name="management-ucd">{{cite web |url=http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7404.html |title=Aphids |author=Flint, M.L. |date=July 2013 |publisher=UC IPM |access-date=6 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180409051533/http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7404.html |archive-date=2018-04-09 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="soap-uc">{{cite web |url=http://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/insects/insect-control-soaps-and-detergents-5-547/ |title=Insect Control: Soaps and Detergents |author=Cranshaw, W.S. |date=March 2008 |publisher=University of Colorado |access-date=6 February 2018 |archive-date=7 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180207062834/http://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/insects/insect-control-soaps-and-detergents-5-547/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="soap-clemson">{{cite web |url=http://www.clemson.edu/extension/hgic/pests/pesticide/hgic2771.html |title=Insecticidal Soaps for Garden Pest Control |author=Ubl, J.B. |date=July 2009 |publisher=Clemson University |access-date=6 February 2018 |archive-date=22 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180122132816/http://www.clemson.edu/extension/hgic/pests/pesticide/hgic2771.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Pandora neoaphidis.jpg|thumb|right|Green peach aphid, ''[[Myzus persicae]]'', killed by the fungus ''[[Pandora (fungus)|Pandora neoaphidis]]'' ([[Entomophthorales]])]]

Aphid populations can be sampled using yellow-pan or [[Volker Moericke|Moericke]] traps. These are yellow containers with water that attract aphids.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Evans|first1=D. A.|last2=Medler|first2=J. T.|date=1966-12-01|title=Improved Method of Using Yellow-Pan Aphid Traps1|url=http://academic.oup.com/jee/article/59/6/1526/2208682/Improved-Method-of-Using-YellowPan-Aphid-Traps1|journal=Journal of Economic Entomology|language=en|volume=59|issue=6|pages=1526–1527|doi=10.1093/jee/59.6.1526|issn=1938-291X|access-date=2020-03-22|archive-date=2021-11-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113215423/https://academic.oup.com/jee/article-abstract/59/6/1526/2208682?redirectedFrom=fulltext|url-status=live}}</ref> Aphids respond positively to green and their attraction to yellow may not be a true colour preference but related to brightness. Their visual receptors peak in sensitivity from 440 to 480&nbsp;nm and are insensitive in the red region. Moericke found that aphids avoided landing on white coverings placed on soil and were repelled even more by shiny aluminium surfaces.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11829-006-9000-1 |title=Visual ecology of aphids—a critical review on the role of colours in host finding |year=2007 |last1=Döring |first1=Thomas Felix |last2=Chittka |first2=Lars |journal=Arthropod-Plant Interactions |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=3–16 |bibcode=2007APInt...1....3D |s2cid=20066025 |url=http://orgprints.org/19804/1/2007.Doring_%26_Chittka.APIS.pdf |access-date=2020-08-27 |archive-date=2020-09-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919102110/https://orgprints.org/19804/1/2007.Doring_%26_Chittka.APIS.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Integrated pest management]] of various species of aphids can be achieved using biological insecticides based on fungi such as ''Lecanicillium lecanii'', ''Beauveria bassiana'' or ''[[Isaria fumosorosea]]''.<ref name="Lacey 2017 p.">{{cite book |last1=Jaronski |first1=S. T. |title=Microbial control of insect and mite pests: from theory to practice |last2=Mascarin |first2=G. M. |publisher=Academic Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-12-803527-6 |editor=Lacey, Lawrence |pages=141–155 |chapter=Mass Production of Fungal Entomopathogens |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128035276000093}}</ref> Fungi are the main pathogens of aphids; [[Entomophthorales]] can quickly cut aphid numbers in nature.<ref name="Steinkraus 2006 pp. 125–131">{{cite journal | last=Steinkraus | first=Donald C. | title=Factors affecting transmission of fungal pathogens of aphids | journal=Journal of Invertebrate Pathology | volume=92 | issue=3 | year=2006 | doi=10.1016/j.jip.2006.03.009 | pmid=16780867 | pages=125–131| bibcode=2006JInvP..92..125S }}</ref>

Aphids may also be [[Biological pest control|controlled by the release of natural enemies]], in particular [[lady beetles]] and [[parasitoid wasp]]s. However, since adult lady beetles tend to fly away within 48 hours after release, without laying eggs, repeated applications of large numbers of lady beetles are needed to be effective. For example, one large, heavily infested rose bush may take two applications of 1500 beetles each.<ref name="management-ucd"/><ref>[http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/NE/ladybeetle_releases.pdf Lady Beetle Releases for Aphid Control: How to Help Them Work] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402111512/http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/NE/ladybeetle_releases.pdf |date=2015-04-02 }}. Clark, J.K., University of California Davis, June 2011.</ref>

The ability to produce allomones such as [[farnesene]] to repel and disperse aphids and to attract their predators has been experimentally transferred to [[transgenic]] ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]'' plants using an Eβf synthase gene in the hope that the approach could protect transgenic crops.<ref name="Beale2006">{{cite journal | last1=Beale | first1=M. H. | last2=Birkett | first2=M. A. | last3=Bruce | first3=T. J. A. | last4=Chamberlain | first4=K. | last5=Field | first5=L. M. | last6=Huttly | first6=A. K. | last7=Martin | first7=J. L. | last8=Parker | first8=R. | last9=Phillips | first9=A. L. | last10=Pickett | first10=J. A. | last11=Prosser | first11=I. M. | last12=Shewry | first12=P. R. | last13=Smart | first13=L. E. | last14=Wadhams | first14=L. J. | last15=Woodcock | first15=C. M. | last16=Zhang | first16=Y. | title=Aphid alarm pheromone produced by transgenic plants affects aphid and parasitoid behavior | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=103 | issue=27 | year=2006 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0603998103 | pmid=16798877 | pages=10509–10513| pmc=1502488 | bibcode=2006PNAS..10310509B | doi-access=free }}</ref> Eβ farnesene has however found to be ineffective in crop situations although stabler synthetic forms help improve the effectiveness of control using fungal spores and insecticides through increased uptake caused by movements of aphids.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pickett |first1=J. A. |last2=Wadhams |first2=L. J. |last3=Woodcock |first3=C. M. |last4=Hardie |first4=J. |date=1992 |title=The Chemical Ecology of Aphids |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=67–90 |doi=10.1146/annurev.en.37.010192.000435}}</ref>

===In human culture===
Aphids are familiar to farmers and gardeners, mainly as pests. [[Peter Marren]] and [[Richard Mabey]] record that [[Gilbert White]] described an invading "army" of black aphids that arrived in his village of [[Selborne]], [[Hampshire, England]], in August 1774 in "great clouds", covering every plant, while in the unusually hot summer of 1783, White found that honeydew was so abundant as to "deface and destroy the beauties of my garden", though he thought the aphids were consuming rather than producing it.<ref name="BB">{{cite book |author1=Marren, Peter |author2=Mabey, Richard |author2-link=Richard Mabey |title=Bugs Britannica |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ah62bUZLDOwC |year=2010 |publisher=Chatto & Windus |isbn=978-0-7011-8180-2 |pages=191–194 |access-date=2018-02-09 |archive-date=2017-03-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314080048/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ah62bUZLDOwC |url-status=live }}</ref>

Infestation of the Chinese sumac (''[[Rhus chinensis]]'')  by Chinese sumac aphids (''[[Schlechtendalia chinensis]]'') can create "Chinese galls" which are valued as a commercial product. As "Galla Chinensis", they are used in [[traditional Chinese medicine]] to treat [[cough]]s, [[diarrhea]], night sweats, [[dysentery]] and to stop intestinal and uterine bleeding. Chinese galls are also an important source of [[tannin]]s.<ref name=Stroyan/>