Editing American Revolutionary War (section)

===British strategy===
{{Further|Seven Years' War}}

The British military had considerable experience fighting in North America.<ref name="cdOwo">[[#cave2004|Cave 2004]], pp. 21–22</ref> However, in previous conflicts they benefited from local logistics and support from the colonial militia. In the American Revolutionary War, reinforcements had to come from Europe, and maintaining large armies over such distances was extremely complex; ships could take three months to cross the Atlantic, and orders from London were often outdated by the time they arrived.<ref name="HZaQ9">[[#jgreene2008|Greene & Pole 2008]], pp. 298, 306</ref>

Prior to the conflict, the colonies were largely autonomous economic and political entities, with no centralized area of ultimate strategic importance.<ref name="Jvdgy">[[#rosssman2016|Rossman 2016]], p. 2</ref> This meant that, unlike Europe where the fall of a capital city often ended wars, that in America continued even after the loss of major settlements such as Philadelphia, the seat of Congress, New York, and Charleston.<ref name="WTNUb">[[#curtis1926|Curtis 1926]], pp. 148–149</ref> British power was reliant on the Royal Navy, whose dominance allowed them to resupply their own expeditionary forces while preventing access to enemy ports. However, the majority of the American population was agrarian, rather than urban; supported by the French navy and blockade runners based in the [[Dutch Caribbean]], their economy was able to survive.<ref name="Pole 2004">[[#jgreene2008|Greene & Pole 2008]], pp. 42, 48</ref>
[[Frederick North, 2nd Earl of Guilford|Lord North]], Prime Minister since 1770, delegated control of the war in North America to [[Lord George Germain]] and the [[John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich|Earl of Sandwich]], who was [[First Lord of the Admiralty|head of the Royal Navy]] from 1771 to 1782. Defeat at Saratoga in 1777 made it clear the revolt would not be easily suppressed, especially after the Franco-American alliance of February 1778. With Spain also expected to join the conflict, the Royal Navy needed to prioritize either the war in America or in Europe; Germain advocated the former, Sandwich the latter.<ref name="Zfq4g">[[#syrett1998|Syrett 1998]], pp. 18–22</ref>

North initially backed the Southern strategy attempting to exploit divisions between the mercantile north and slave-owning south, but after the defeat of Yorktown, he was forced to accept that this policy had failed.<ref name="6mBg1">[[#hibbert|Hibbert 2008]], p. 333</ref> It was clear the war was lost, although the Royal Navy forced the French to relocate their fleet to the Caribbean in November 1781 and resumed a close blockade of American trade.<ref name="EiC1K">[[#davisengerman2006|Davis, L. and Engerman 2006]], p. 64</ref> The resulting economic damage and rising inflation meant the US was now eager to end the war, while France was unable to provide further loans; Congress could no longer pay its soldiers.<ref name="q5EIL">[[#Rappleye2010|Rappleye 2010]], pp. 300–313</ref>
The geographical size of the colonies and limited manpower meant the British could not simultaneously conduct military operations and occupy territory without local support. Debate persists over whether their defeat was inevitable; one British statesman described it as "like trying to conquer a map".<ref name="arzue">[[#curtis1926|Curtis 1926]], p. 148</ref> While [[John E. Ferling|Ferling]] argues Patriot victory was nothing short of a miracle,<ref name="holEy">[[#ferling2007|Ferling 2007]], pp. 562–577</ref> [[Joseph Ellis|Ellis]] suggests the odds always favored the Americans, especially after Howe squandered the chance of a decisive British success in 1776, an "opportunity that would never come again".<ref name="MqYnj">[[#ellis2013|Ellis 2013]], p. xi</ref> The US military history speculates the additional commitment of 10,000 fresh troops in 1780 would have placed British victory "within the realm of possibility".<ref name="Ma3JT">[[#stewartR|Stewart, R. 2005]], vol. 4, p. 103</ref>

====British Army====
{{Main|British Army during the American Revolutionary War}}
{{See also|Loyalist (American Revolution)#Military service}}
[[File:Thomas Gage John Singleton Copley.jpeg|thumb|upright|left|alt=Portrait of the British commander-in-chief, Sir Thomas Gage in dress uniform.|Sir [[Thomas Gage]], [[British Army]] Commander from 1763 to 1775]]

The expulsion of France from North America in 1763 led to a drastic reduction in British troop levels in the colonies; in 1775, there were only 8,500 regular soldiers among a civilian population of 2.8&nbsp;million.<ref name="0qbek">[[#clode1869a|Clode 1869]], Vol. 1, p. 268</ref> The bulk of military resources in the Americas were focused on defending sugar islands in the Caribbean; [[Colony of Jamaica|Jamaica]] alone generated more revenue than all thirteen American colonies combined.<ref name="FJWrp">[[#billias1969|Billias 1969]], p. 83</ref> With the end of the Seven Years' War, the permanent army in Britain was also cut back, which resulted in administrative difficulties when the war began a decade later.<ref name="Y118y">[[#clayton2014|Clayton 2014]], p. 65</ref>

Over the course of the war, there were four separate British commanders-in-chief. The first was Thomas Gage, appointed in 1763, whose initial focus was establishing British rule in former French areas of Canada. Many in London blamed the revolt on his failure to take firm action earlier, and he was relieved after the heavy losses incurred at the Battle of Bunker Hill.<ref name="cosou">[[#nessy|O'Shaunessy 2013]], p. 86</ref> His replacement was Sir William Howe, a member of the Whig faction in Parliament who opposed the policy of coercion advocated by Lord North; Cornwallis, who later surrendered at Yorktown, was one of many senior officers who initially refused to serve in North America.<ref name="CZWL2">[[#ketchum97|Ketchum 1997]], p. 76</ref>

The 1775 campaign showed the British overestimated the capabilities of their own troops and underestimated the colonial militia, requiring a reassessment of tactics and strategy,<ref name="pWpln">[[#ketchum2014a|Ketchum 2014a]], p. 208</ref> and allowing the Patriots to take the initiative.<ref name="57mVs">[[#miller1959|Miller 1959]], pp. 410–412</ref> Howe's responsibility is still debated; despite receiving large numbers of reinforcements, Bunker Hill seems to have permanently affected his self-confidence and lack of tactical flexibility meant he often failed to follow up opportunities.<ref name="r4hyC">[[#fleming2006|Fleming 2006]], p. 44</ref> Many of his decisions were attributed to supply problems, such as his failure to pursue Washington's beaten army.<ref name="MlUcq">[[#daviesk1972|Davies, K. 1972]], vol. 12 – 1776, 5:93, Howe to Germain, June 7 and July 7, 1776</ref> Having lost the confidence of his subordinates, he was recalled after Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga.<ref name="UkMe5">[[#nessy|O'Shaunessy 2013]], p. 216</ref>

Following the failure of the Carlisle Commission, British policy changed from treating the Patriots as subjects who needed to be reconciled to enemies who had to be defeated.<ref name="o6DjZ">[[#hibbert2000|Hibbert 2000]], pp. 160–161</ref> In 1778, Howe was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton.<ref name="eA9wm">[[#nessy|O'Shaunessy 2013]], p.</ref> Regarded as an expert on tactics and strategy,<ref name="UkMe5" /> like his predecessors Clinton was handicapped by chronic supply issues.<ref name="BZg2c">[[#daviesk1972|Davies, K. 1972]], vol. 15 – 1778, 5:96, Clinton to Germain, September 15, 1778</ref> In addition, Clinton's strategy was compromised by conflict with political superiors in London and his colleagues in North America, especially Admiral [[Mariot Arbuthnot]], replaced in early 1781 by Rodney.<ref name="ap5wX" /> He was neither notified nor consulted when Germain approved Cornwallis's invasion of the south in 1781 and delayed sending him reinforcements believing the bulk of Washington's army was still outside New York City.<ref name="mWJRm">[[#ketchum2014b|Ketchum 2014b]], pp. 208–210</ref> After the surrender at Yorktown, Clinton was relieved by Carleton, whose major task was to oversee the evacuation of Loyalists and British troops from Savannah, Charleston, and New York City.<ref name="YZsHH">[[#cashin|Cashin 2005]], "Revolutionary War in Georgia"</ref>

====German troops====
{{Main|Hessian (soldier)}}

[[File:Surrender of the Hessian Troops to General Washington, after The Battle of Trenton. December 1776. Copy of lithograph, 1 - NARA - 532880.tif|thumb|alt=Hessian troops surrender after Battle of Trenton, December 1776 |[[Hessian (soldier)|Hessian]] troops surrender after [[George Washington|Washington]]'s victory at the [[Battle of Trenton]] in December 1776]]

During the 18th century, states commonly [[Soldatenhandel|hired foreign soldiers]], including Britain.<ref name="jSAGZ">[[#baer2015|Baer 2015]], p. 115</ref> When it became clear additional troops were needed to suppress the revolt in America, it was decided to employ [[Germans in the American Revolution#Allies of Great Britain|professional German soldiers]]. There were several reasons for this, including public sympathy for the Patriot cause, a historical reluctance to expand the British army and the time needed to recruit and train new regiments.<ref name="cCTlC">[[#baer2015|Baer 2015]], p. 117</ref> Many smaller states in the [[Holy Roman Empire]] had a long tradition of renting their armies to the highest bidder. The most important was [[Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel|Hesse-Kassel]], known as "the Mercenary State".<ref name="NNZE8">[[#showalter2007|Showalter 2007]], "Best armies money could buy"</ref>

The first supply agreements were signed by the North administration in late 1775; 30,000 Germans served in the American War.<ref name="btSGH">[[#baer2015|Baer 2015]], pp. 111–112</ref> Often generically referred to as "Hessians", they included men from many other states, including [[Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg|Hanover]] and Brunswick.<ref name="srbv4">[[#fetter1980|Fetter 1980]], p. 508</ref> Sir Henry Clinton recommended recruiting Russian troops whom he rated very highly, having seen them in action against the [[Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)|Ottomans]]; however, negotiations with [[Catherine the Great]] made little progress.<ref name="IqLsU">[[#baer2015|Baer 2015]], pp. 118–119</ref>

Unlike previous wars their use led to intense political debate in Britain, France, and even Germany, where [[Frederick the Great]] refused to provide passage through his territories for troops hired for the American war.<ref name="schmidt208-209">[[#schmidt1958|Schmidt 1958]], pp. 208–209</ref> In March 1776, the agreements were challenged in Parliament by Whigs who objected to "coercion" in general, and the use of foreign soldiers to subdue "British subjects".<ref name="vyLv6">[[#baer2015|Baer 2015]], pp. 121, 141–142</ref> The debates were covered in detail by American newspapers; in May 1776 they received copies of the treaties themselves, provided by British sympathizers and smuggled into North America from London.<ref name="tIwST">[[#baer2015|Baer 2015]], pp. 143–144</ref>

The prospect of foreign German soldiers being used in the colonies bolstered support for independence, more so than taxation and other acts combined; the King was accused of declaring war on his own subjects, leading to the idea there were now two separate governments.<ref name="ImWYT">[[#baer2015|Baer 2015]], pp. 136–143</ref><ref name="juHEN">[[#oshaughnessy2004|O'Saughnessy, 2004]], p. 20</ref> By apparently showing Britain was determined to go to war, it made hopes of reconciliation seem naive and hopeless, while the employment of what was regarded as "foreign mercenaries" became one of the charges levelled against George III in the Declaration of Independence.<ref name="schmidt208-209" /> The Hessian reputation within Germany for brutality also increased support for the Patriot cause among German American immigrants.<ref name="taPBr">[[#baer2015|Baer 2015]], p. 142</ref>

The presence of over 150,000 [[German Americans]] meant both sides felt the German soldiers might be persuaded to desert; one reason Clinton suggested employing Russians was that he felt they were less likely to defect. When the first German troops arrived on Staten Island in August 1776, Congress approved the printing of handbills, promising land and citizenship to any willing to join the Patriot cause. The British launched a counter-campaign claiming deserters could be executed.<ref name="mauch415">[[#mauch2003|Mauch 2003]], p. 415</ref> Desertion among the Germans occurred throughout the war, with the highest rate of desertion occurring between the surrender at Yorktown and the Treaty of Paris.<ref name="Nf6u9">[[#atwood2002|Atwood, 2002]], p. 194</ref> German regiments were central to the British war effort; of the estimated 30,000 sent to America, some 13,000 became casualties.<ref name="bnmql">[[#lowell84|Lowell 1884]], pp. 20–21, 282–283</ref>