Editing 1340s (section)

===Culture, religion and philosophy===

====Architecture====
{{see also|14th century in architecture}}
[[Image:NotreDameI.jpg|left|thumb|The western façade of [[Notre Dame de Paris]], completed in 1345]]
A number of European building projects were completed in the 1340s, mainly consisting of cathedrals and universities. In [['s-Hertogenbosch]], construction was finished on the [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque church]] begun in 1220, which was later rebuilt as the 16th century [[St. John's Cathedral, 's-Hertogenbosch|St. John's Cathedral]]. In the German city of [[Mainz]], work was completed on the [[St. Stephen's Church, Mainz|Collegiate Church of St. Stephan]], begun in 1267. In [[Aragonese Kingdom of Naples|Naples]], three decades of work were finished on the [[monastery]] of [[Santa Chiara (Naples)|Santa Chiara]].

The High Gothic choir of [[St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna]], was consecrated in 1340.<ref>Toman, p 478</ref> [[St. Rumbolds Cathedral|Mecheln Cathedral]], then a collegiate church, was started with the choir in 1342.<ref>Toman, p 178</ref> In 1344, [[Prague]] was made an archbishopric, and the foundation stone was laid on the new [[St. Vitus Cathedral]].<ref>Toman, p 209</ref> [[Cathedral]]s completed in this decade, excluding later alterations, include [[Notre Dame de Paris]] and the [[Cathedral of the Theotokos, Vilnius]], completed around 1345 and 1346 respectively. In [[Ely Cathedral]], the last part of the repairs to the structure was finished with the richly decorated [[Lady Chapel (Ely)|Lady Chapel]] in 1345.<ref>Toman, p 144-145</ref>

In [[Venice]], the [[Venetian Gothic architecture|Venetian Gothic]] [[Doge's Palace, Venice|Palazzo Ducale]], or Doge's Palace, was erected on top of older buildings in 1340.<ref>Toman, p 260</ref> In [[Switzerland]], the walls of the [[Old City of Berne]] were extended up to the [[Christoffelturm]], from 1344 to 1346. Berne's Käfigturm was erected from 1256 to 1344 as the second western city gate.<ref>{{cite web|title=Käfigturm (Prison Tower) |url=http://www.berninfo.com/en/navpage-SightsBET-AttractionsBET-32481.html |publisher=Berninfo.com |access-date=2008-07-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070129054412/http://www.berninfo.com/en/navpage-SightsBET-AttractionsBET-32481.html |archive-date=2007-01-29 }}</ref> In [[Siena]], the [[Torre del Mangia|Torre della Mangia]] of the [[Palazzo Pubblico]] was completed in 1348.<ref>Toman, p 280</ref> That same year, land in the English town of [[Charing]] held by the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] was [[Archbishop's Palace, Charing|redeveloped as an episcopal palace]].

The [[Scuola della Carità]], one of the six [[Scuole Grandi of Venice]], was built in 1343. Two [[medieval universities]] were established in the 1340s: the [[University of Pisa]] (1343) and the [[Charles University in Prague|University of Prague]] (1347).<ref>Davies, p 1248</ref> The [[University of Valladolid]] was also granted a ''licentia ubique docendi'' by Pope [[Clement VI]] in 1347, during the reign of Alfonso XI.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Historical University, Tradition and Progress since the 13th century |url=http://www.universityofvalladolid.uva.es/past/index.html |publisher=[[University of Valladolid]] |access-date=2008-07-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081212125253/http://www.universityofvalladolid.uva.es/past/index.html |archive-date=2008-12-12 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Queen's College, Oxford]], was founded by the chaplain [[Robert de Eglesfield]] in 1341, and [[Philippa of Hainault|Queen Philippa]] secured the lands of a small hospital in Southampton for the college in 1343.<ref>{{cite web |title=The History of The Queen's College |url=http://www.queens.ox.ac.uk/history/ |publisher=[[Queen's College, Oxford]] |access-date=2009-06-18 }}</ref> Meanwhile, [[Bablake School]] was founded in [[Coventry]] in 1344 by the Queen Mother, [[Isabella of France]], while [[Pembroke College, Cambridge]], was completed in 1347.<ref>Neillands, p 109-110</ref>

====Art====
{{see also|1340s in art}}
[[Image:Bernardo Daddi 002.jpg|thumb|right|[[Bernardo Daddi]]'s ''Crucifixion'' (1340–1345)]]
In religious art, a series of [[stained glass]] windows were completed for the choir [[clerestory]] of [[Évreux Cathedral]] in Normandy c. 1340.<ref name="Toman477">Toman, p 477</ref> Stained glass was also completed for the former Königsfelden Abbey in [[Switzerland]], around the same time.<ref name="Toman477"/>

The possibilities of [[Giotto di Bondone|Giotto]]'s art were developed further in this decade by his pupils [[Maso di Banco]] and [[Bernardo Daddi]].<ref name="Toman444">Toman, p 444</ref> Significant of their works is ''[[:Image:Popesylvesterdragon.jpg|Pope Sylvester Tames the Dragon]]'', painted in 1340 by di Banco for the [[Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence|Church of Santa Croce]] in [[Florence]].<ref name="Toman444"/> An illustration by the artist Domenico Lenzi, the ''City Scene'' of 1340 from the ''Il Biadaiolo'' codex, shows just how much the Florentine artists were influenced by Giotto.<ref>Toman, p 464-465</ref>

In 1340, toward the end of his life, the painter [[Simone Martini]] was called to [[Avignon]] to work for the papal court.<ref name="Toman446">Toman, p 446</ref> His frescos in the portico of [[Avignon Cathedral]] have been lost, but the frescoes in the papal palace, painted by his pupils or colleagues around 1340, survive.<ref name="Toman446"/> Another notable religious artist was the [[Pisa]]n painter [[Francesco Traini]], who painted the ''Triumph of St. Thomas Aquinas'' as part of an Italian altarpiece "which reflects the divine order of the cosmos".<ref>Toman, p 439</ref>

In sculpture, the main artist was [[Andrea Pisano]], who maintained a workshop in Pisa with his son [[Nino Pisano]] from 1343 to 1347.<ref name="Toman331">Toman, p 331</ref> They are noted for the famous sculpture ''Maria lactans'', and their work on [[Orvieto Cathedral]].<ref name="Toman331"/>

====Literature====
{{see also|14th century in literature|Medieval literature}}
In 1341, [[Petrarch]] was crowned poet laureate in Rome, the first man since antiquity to be given this honor.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Renaissance Profiles|last=Plumb|first=J.H.|publisher=Harper & Row|year=1965|isbn=9780061311628|location=New York|pages=1–17}}</ref>
* ''[[Codex Manesse]]'', completed 1340
* Michael of Northgate (''[[Ayenbite of Inwyt]]'', 1340)
* [[Giovanni Boccaccio]] ([[Giovanni Boccaccio#Works|works]])
* [[Petrarch]] (''[[Africa (Petrarch)|Africa]]'', 1343)
* [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] (born 1343)
* ''[[Perceforest]]'', completed 1344

====Military technology====
It was around this decade that [[medieval cannon]] began to be used more widely in Europe, appearing in small numbers in several European states by the 1340s.<ref name="Nicolle">Nicolle, p 21</ref> "Thunder jar" weaponry utilizing gunpowder and other firearm technology spread to Spain in 1342 and to the city of [[Aachen]] in Northern Germany in 1346.<ref>Delbrück, p 28</ref><ref>Nossov (2005), p 209</ref> "[[Ribauldequin|Ribaldis]]" were first mentioned in the English Privy Wardrobe accounts between 1345 and 1346, during preparations for the campaign in France.<ref name="Nicolle"/> The effectiveness of these cannon was limited, as they are believed to have only shot large arrows and simple grapeshot, but they were so valuable that they were directly controlled by the Royal Wardrobe.<ref name="Nicolle"/> Contemporary chroniclers such as the French [[Jean Froissart]] and the Florentine [[Giovanni Villani]] record their destructiveness on the field at the [[Battle of Crecy]] in 1346.

====Philosophy and religion====
[[Image:William of Ockham - Logica 1341.jpg|thumb|A sketch of [[William of Ockham]], from a 1341 manuscript of Ockham's earlier [[nominalism|nominalist]] work, ''[[Sum of Logic|Summa Logicae]]'']]

In the 1340s, Catholic Church was governed under the [[Avignon Papacy]]. Pope [[Benedict XII]] died on 25 April 1342, and was buried in a mausoleum in [[Avignon Cathedral]].<ref name="Rendina376">Rendina, p 376</ref> Thirteen days later, the [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinals]] elected [[Benedictine]] cardinal and theologian Pierre Roger de Beaufort as Pope [[Clement VI]].<ref name="Rendina376"/> He reigned as pope until 1352.<ref name="Rendina376"/>

In 1340s, the controversial [[Franciscan]] [[friar]] and [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] philosopher [[William of Ockham]] was at [[Munich]] under the protection of the [[Holy Roman Emperor]], [[Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Louis of Bavaria]], since 1330.<ref name="CRVP">{{cite web|title=William of Ockham, Philosopher of Nominalism |url=http://www.crvp.org/book/Series01/I-9/chapter_vii.htm |publisher=Council for Research in Values and Philosophy |access-date=2008-07-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720111114/https://www.crvp.org/book/Series01/I-9/chapter_vii.htm |archive-date=2008-07-20 }}</ref> During this time, he wrote exclusively on political matters,<ref name="StanfordOckham">{{cite encyclopedia |title=William of Ockham – 1.3 Munich |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ockham/#1.3 |encyclopedia=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |publisher=[[Stanford University]] |access-date=2008-07-12 }}</ref> as an advocate of [[Absolute monarchy|secular absolutism]] against [[papal]] authority, for which he had previously been [[Excommunication (Catholic Church)|excommunicated]].<ref name="Newadvent">{{cite encyclopedia |title=William of Ockham |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15636a.htm |encyclopedia=[[Catholic Encyclopedia]] (1913) |publisher=Newadvent.org |access-date=2008-07-12 }}</ref> Among the followers of Ockhamism — condensed as the omnipotence of God and [[Occam's Razor]] — were [[John of Mirecourt]] (fl. c. 1345) and [[Nicholas of Autrecourt]] (fl. c. 1347), both of whom taught at the [[University of Paris]].<ref name="CRVP"/> Ockham, Mirecourt and Autrecourt all agreed on the [[Law of noncontradiction|principle of noncontradiction]] and experience as bases of certainty.<ref name="CRVP"/>

On November 21, 1340, Autrecourt too was summoned him to [[Avignon]] to respond to allegations of false teaching.<ref name="StanfordAutrecourt">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Nicholas of Autrecourt |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/autrecourt/ |encyclopedia=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |publisher=[[Stanford University]] |access-date=2008-07-12 }}</ref> The trial, under [[Pope Benedict XII]] and his successor [[Clement VI]], lasted until his conviction in 1346.<ref name="StanfordAutrecourt"/> Autrecourt was charged with 66 erroneous teachings or "articles", which he publicly recanted before the papal court.<ref name="StanfordAutrecourt"/> He recanted them in public again, in Paris in 1347.<ref name="StanfordAutrecourt"/> Although Ockham also expressed willingness to resubmit to the Church and Franciscan Order, there is no evidence of a formal reconciliation.<ref name="CRVP"/> Ockham is sometimes said to have died in 1349,<ref name="Newadvent"/> but it is more likely to have been 1347,<ref name="StanfordOckham"/> possibly of the Black Plague.<ref name="CRVP"/>

In 1343, Clement VI issued the [[papal bull]] ''Unigenitus''. The bull defined the doctrine of "The Treasury of Merits" or "The Treasury of the Church" as the basis for the issuance of [[indulgence]]s by the Catholic Church.<!--Copied from [[1343]] article--><ref>''The Forge of Vision: A Visual History of Modern Christianity'' {{ISBN|978-0-52028-695-5}} p. 75</ref>