Editing Rhetoric (section)

===Sixteenth century===
[[Renaissance humanism]] defined itself broadly as disfavoring medieval scholastic logic and dialectic and as favoring instead the study of classical Latin style and grammar and philology and rhetoric.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ong|first=Walter J.|chapter=Humanism|title=Faith and Contexts|publisher=Scholars Press|year=1999|volume=4|pages=69–91}}</ref>

[[File:Quentin Massys- Erasmus of Rotterdam.JPG|thumb|upright=0.85|Portrait of [[Erasmus of Rotterdam]]]]

One influential figure in the rebirth of interest in classical rhetoric was [[Erasmus]] ({{circa|1466}}–1536). His 1512 work, ''De Duplici Copia Verborum et Rerum'' (also known as ''[[Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style]]''), was widely published (it went through more than 150 editions throughout Europe) and became one of the basic school texts on the subject. Its treatment of rhetoric is less comprehensive than the classic works of antiquity, but provides a traditional treatment of {{lang|la|res-verba}} (matter and form). Its first book treats the subject of {{lang|la|[[elocutio]]}}, showing the student how to use [[figure of speech|schemes and tropes]]; the second book covers {{lang|la|[[inventio]]}}. Much of the emphasis is on abundance of variation ({{lang|la|copia}} means "plenty" or "abundance", as in copious or cornucopia), so both books focus on ways to introduce the maximum amount of variety into discourse. For instance, in one section of the ''De Copia'', Erasmus presents two hundred variations of the sentence "Always, as long as I live, I shall remember you" ("{{lang|la|Semper, dum vivam, tui meminero.}}") Another of his works, the extremely popular ''[[The Praise of Folly]]'', also had considerable influence on the teaching of rhetoric in the later 16th century. Its orations in favour of qualities such as madness spawned a type of exercise popular in Elizabethan grammar schools, later called [[adoxography]], which required pupils to compose passages in praise of useless things.

[[Juan Luis Vives]] (1492–1540) also helped shape the study of rhetoric in England. A Spaniard, he was appointed in 1523 to the Lectureship of Rhetoric at Oxford by [[Cardinal Wolsey]], and was entrusted by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] to be one of the tutors of Mary. Vives fell into disfavor when Henry VIII divorced [[Catherine of Aragon]] and left England in 1528. His best-known work was a book on education, ''{{lang|la|De Disciplinis}}'', published in 1531, and his writings on rhetoric included ''{{lang|la|Rhetoricae, sive De Ratione Dicendi, Libri Tres}}'' (1533), ''{{lang|la|De Consultatione}}'' (1533), and a treatise on letter writing, ''{{lang|la|De Conscribendis Epistolas}}'' (1536).

It is likely that many well-known English writers were exposed to the works of Erasmus and Vives (as well as those of the Classical rhetoricians) in their schooling, which was conducted in Latin (not English), often included some study of Greek, and placed considerable emphasis on rhetoric.<ref>{{cite book|first=T.W.|last=Baldwin|title=William Shakspere's Small Latine and Lesse Greeke|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=1944}} (2 vols.)</ref>

The mid-16th century saw the rise of vernacular rhetorics—those written in English rather than in the Classical languages. Adoption of works in English was slow, however, due to the strong scholastic orientation toward Latin and Greek. [[Leonard Cox]]'s ''The Art or Crafte of Rhetoryke'' ({{circa|1524–1530}}; second edition published in 1532) is the earliest text on rhetorics in English; it was, for the most part, a translation of the work of [[Melanchthon|Philipp Melanchthon]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ives Carpenter |first1=Frederic |year=1898 |title=Leonard Cox and the First English Rhetoric |journal=Modern Language Notes |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=146–47 |doi=10.2307/2917751 |jstor=2917751}}</ref> [[Thomas Wilson (rhetorician)|Thomas Wilson]]'s ''{{lang|en-emodeng|The Arte of Rhetorique}}'' (1553) presents a traditional treatment of rhetoric, for instance, the standard five canons of rhetoric. Other notable works included [[Angel Day]]'s ''{{lang|en-emodeng|The English Secretorie}}'' (1586, 1592), [[George Puttenham]]'s ''{{lang|en-emodeng|The Arte of English Poesie}}'' (1589), and Richard Rainholde's ''{{lang|en-emodeng|Foundacion of Rhetorike}}'' (1563).

During this same period, a movement began that would change the organization of the school curriculum in Protestant and especially Puritan circles and that led to rhetoric losing its central place. A French scholar, [[Petrus Ramus]] (1515–1572), dissatisfied with what he saw as the overly broad and redundant organization of the [[trivium (education)|trivium]], proposed a new curriculum. In his scheme of things, the five components of rhetoric no longer lived under the common heading of rhetoric. Instead, invention and disposition were determined to fall exclusively under the heading of dialectic, while style, delivery, and memory were all that remained for rhetoric.<ref>{{cite book|author-link=Walter J. Ong|first=Walter J.|last=Ong|title=Ramus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue: From the Art of Discourse to the Art of Reason|publisher=University of Chicago Press|orig-date=1958|year=2004}}</ref> Ramus was martyred during the French Wars of Religion. His teachings, seen as inimical to Catholicism, were short-lived in France but found a fertile ground in the Netherlands, Germany, and England.<ref>See {{citation|author-link=Marc Fumaroli|first=Marc|last=Fumaroli|title=Age de l'Éloquence|year=1980}}. For an extensive presentation of the intricate political and religious debates concerning rhetoric in France and Italy at the time.</ref>

One of Ramus' French followers, [[Audomarus Talaeus]] (Omer Talon) published his rhetoric, ''Institutiones Oratoriae'', in 1544. This work emphasized style, and became so popular that it was mentioned in [[John Brinsley the elder|John Brinsley]]'s (1612) ''{{lang|la|Ludus literarius}}; {{lang|en-emodeng|or The Grammar Schoole}}'' as being the "{{lang|en-emodeng|most used in the best schooles}}". Many other [[Ramist]] rhetorics followed in the next half-century, and by the 17th century, their approach became the primary method of teaching rhetoric in Protestant and especially Puritan circles.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|author-link=Walter J. Ong|first=Walter J.|last=Ong|title=Ramus and Talon Inventory|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1958}}
|2={{cite book|first=Joseph S.|last=Freedman|title=Philosophy and the Art Europe, 1500–1700: Teaching and Texts at Schools and Universities|publisher=Ashgate|year=1999}}
}}</ref> [[John Milton]] (1608–1674) wrote a textbook in logic or dialectic in Latin based on Ramus' work.<ref>{{cite book|last=Milton|first=John|title=Artis Logicae Plenior Institutio: Ad Petri Rami Methodum Concinnata|location=New York|orig-date=1672|translator-first=Allan H.|translator-last=Gilbert|series=The Works of John Milton|volume=XI|year=1935}}</ref>

Ramism could not exert any influence on the established Catholic schools and universities, which remained loyal to Scholasticism, or on the new Catholic schools and universities founded by members of the [[Society of Jesus]] or the Oratorians, as can be seen in the [[Jesuit]] curriculum (in use up to the 19th century across the Christian world) known as the {{lang|la|[[Ratio Studiorum]]}}.<ref>{{cite book|editor-first=Claude Nicholas|editor-last=Pavur|title=The Ratio studiorum: The Official Plan for Jesuit Education|location=St. Louis, Mo.|publisher=Institute of Jesuit Sources|year=2005|oclc=58476251|isbn=978-1-880810-59-0}}</ref> If the influence of Cicero and Quintilian permeates the {{lang|la|Ratio Studiorum}}, it is through the lenses of devotion and the militancy of the [[Counter-Reformation]]. The {{lang|la|Ratio}} was indeed imbued with a sense of the divine, of the incarnate logos, that is of rhetoric as an eloquent and humane means to reach further devotion and further action in the Christian city, which was absent from Ramist formalism. The Ratio is, in rhetoric, the answer to [[Ignatius Loyola]]'s practice, in devotion, of "[[Spiritual Exercises|spiritual exercises]]". This complex oratorical-prayer system is absent from Ramism.