Editing Palmyra Atoll (section)

==== National Wildlife Refuge and National Monument ====
[[File:Corl0251 (28226001911).jpg|thumb|[[Humbug dascyllus]] swim among Palmyra corals]]
[[File:Red-footed Booby (5896652469).jpg|thumb|[[Red-footed Booby]] seabird on Palmyra]]
In December 2000, [[The Nature Conservancy]] (TNC) bought most of Palmyra Atoll from the three Fullard-Leo brothers<ref name="DOI OIA"/> for [[coral reef]] [[conservation biology|conservation]] and research. In 2003, a scientific study was published about fossilized coral washing up on Palmyra. This fossilized coral was examined for evidence of the behavior of the effect of [[El Niño]] on the tropical [[Pacific Ocean]] over the past 1,000 years.<ref>K. M. Cobb et al., El Niño/Southern Oscillation and Tropic Pacific Climate During the Last Millennium, ''Nature'', Vol. 424, July 17, 2003</ref> The atoll was purchased for 30 million USD; however, certain areas were later purchased by the United States government.<ref name="nature.com">{{cite web | url=https://www.nature.com/immersive/d41586-023-01932-y/index.html | title=Invasive palms and WWII damaged an island paradise. Could fungi help to restore it? }}</ref> TNC, [[Island Conservation]], and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service manage the island, which is used for research. Major programs have been to eliminate rats and invasive palms.<ref name="nature.com"/> One of the challenges has been understanding how the rich peaty soil that can be found on the island developed on the coral, and one of the overall goals is to maintain biodiversity globally in locations similar to Palmyra.<ref>[https://www.nature.com/immersive/d41586-023-01932-y/index.html Nature June 2023 Lost world Invasive palms and WWII damaged an island paradise. Could fungi help to restore it? by Virginia Gewin]</ref>

[[File:Green turtle Palmyra Atoll National Wildlife Refuge.jpg|thumb|left|[[Chelonia mydas|Green sea turtle]] at Palmyra Atoll National Wildlife Refuge]]
On January 18, 2001, Secretary of the Interior [[Bruce Babbitt]] issued Secretary's Order No. 3224 designating Palmyra's tidal lands, submerged lands and surrounding waters out to {{convert|12|nmi|km}} from the water's edge as a National Wildlife Refuge.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.doi.gov/oia/islands/palmyraatoll |title=Palmyra Atoll |website=U.S. Department of Interior |access-date=August 5, 2024 }}</ref> Subsequently, the Department of the Interior published a regulation providing for the management of the refuge. 66 Fed. Reg. 7660-01 (January 24, 2001). The pertinent part of the regulation states:

<blockquote>We will close the refuge to [[commercial fishing]] but will permit a low level of compatible recreational fishing for bonefishing and deep water sportfishing under programs that we will carefully manage to ensure compatibility with refuge purposes.&nbsp;... Management actions will include protection of the refuge waters and wildlife from commercial fishing activities.</blockquote>

In March 2003, TNC conveyed {{convert|416|acre|km2}} of the emergent land of Palmyra to the United States to be included in the refuge. In 2005, it added 28 acres to the conveyance. TNC and [[Henry Ernest Cooper]]'s descendants kept their remaining private land tracts.

[[File:Coral reef at palmyra.jpg|thumb|Coral reef at Palmyra Atoll National Wildlife Refuge]]
The conveyance to TNC from the Fullard-Leos in 2000 was subject to a preexisting commercial fishing license. Then, in 2001, the [[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]] banned [[commercial fishing]] near Palmyra but allowed [[sport fishing]], as quoted above. In January 2007, the commercial fishing licensees sued the United States in the [[Court of Federal Claims]] alleging that, under the [[Takings Clause#Eminent domain|Takings Clause]], the Interior Department regulation had "directly confiscated, taken, and rendered wholly and completely worthless" their purported property interests. The United States moved to dismiss the lawsuit, and the court granted the motion.<ref>{{Cite court |litigants = Palmyra Pacific Seafoods, L.L.C. v. United States |vol = 80 |reporter = Fed. Cl. |opinion = 228 |court = U.S. Court of Federal Claims |year = 2008 |url= http://www.uscfc.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/CMILLER.PALMYRA012208.pdf}}</ref> On April 9, 2009, the court's decision was affirmed by the [[Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit]].<ref>{{Cite court |litigants = Palmyra Pacific Seafoods, L.L.C. v. United States |vol = 561 |reporter = F.3d |opinion = 1361 |court = Fed. Cir. |year = 2009 |url= http://www.cafc.uscourts.gov/images/stories/opinions-orders/08-5058.pdf}}</ref>

In November 2005, TNC established a new research station on Palmyra to study [[global warming]], coral reefs, [[invasive species]], and other environmental concerns.<ref>{{cite web|title=Opening of The Nature Conservancy Research Station on Palmyra Atoll|publisher=Hawai'i Post|url=http://www.hawaii-post.com/2005-01DEC.html|access-date=August 20, 2010}}</ref>

The Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument, comprising Palmyra Atoll, [[Baker Island]], [[Howland Island]], [[Jarvis Island]], [[Johnston Atoll]], and [[Kingman Reef]], was established on January 6, 2009, by proclamation of President [[George W. Bush]]. This [[National Monument|national monument]] extends {{convert|50|nmi|km|abbr=off|sp=us}} offshore and is managed by the [[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]]<ref name="monument">{{cite web|url=http://www.fws.gov/pacificremoteislandsmarinemonument/|title=Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument|work=fws.gov|publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service|access-date=July 31, 2009|archive-date=March 24, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130324062622/http://www.fws.gov/pacificremoteislandsmarinemonument/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=U.S. Department of Commerce|first=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|title=Discovering the Deep: Exploring Remote Pacific MPAs: Background: Conservation and Research Initiatives at Palmyra Atoll and Kingman Reef: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research|url=https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/okeanos/explorations/ex1705/background/palmyra/welcome.html|access-date=2021-12-31|website=oceanexplorer.noaa.gov|language=EN-US}}</ref> In 2025, this was renamed [[Pacific Islands Heritage Marine National Monument]].